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Mao K, Li X, Chen Z, Dong X, Zhangsun D, Zhu X, Luo S. α-Conotoxin TxIB Improved Behavioral Abnormality and Changed Gene Expression in Zebrafish ( Danio rerio) Induced by Alcohol Withdrawal. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:802917. [PMID: 35177988 PMCID: PMC8844014 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.802917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Purpose: Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a serious public health issue and affects the lives of numerous people. Previous studies have shown a link between nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) and alcohol addiction. However, the role of α6β2* nAChR in alcohol addiction remains obscure, and whether α6β2* nAChR can be used as a potential drug target for alcohol withdrawal need to be studied. Methods: Zebrafish (Danio rerio) were exposed to 0.2% alcohol for 14 days followed by 7 days of repeated withdrawal and then retro-orbitally injected with α-conotoxin TxIB (a selective α6β2* nAChR antagonist). Open Field Test was applied to characterize zebrafish behavior parameters. The monoamine neurotransmitter amounts and their mRNA expression in the zebrafish brain were identified using ELISA and quantitative real-time PCR (RT-PCR). RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) and subsequent bioinformatics analysis were employed to explore the potential network regulation of TxIB after alcohol withdrawal. Results: The max speed in the center area of the Open Field Test was significantly higher in the withdrawal group whereas TxIB injection corrected this abnormality. The amount and mRNA expression of monoamine neurotransmitters did not change significantly after alcohol withdrawal and TxIB administration. RNA sequencing of zebrafish brain indicated a total of 657 genes showed aberrant expression and among which 225 were reversed after TxIB injection. These reversed genes were significantly enriched in the calcium ion binding pathway and the gene expression profile was further validated by RT-PCR. Conclusion: Our finding suggests α-conotoxin TxIB improved behavioral abnormality induced by alcohol-withdrawal, and changed gene expression mainly in the calcium signaling pathway. Therefore, α-conotoxin TxIB is expected to become a potential therapeutic agent for alcohol withdrawal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kailin Mao
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Biological Resources, Ministry of Education, Hainan University, Haikou, China
| | - Xiaodan Li
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Biological Resources, Ministry of Education, Hainan University, Haikou, China
| | - Zongde Chen
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Biological Resources, Ministry of Education, Hainan University, Haikou, China
| | - Xiaoqian Dong
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Biological Resources, Ministry of Education, Hainan University, Haikou, China
| | - Dongting Zhangsun
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Biological Resources, Ministry of Education, Hainan University, Haikou, China.,Medical School, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Xiaopeng Zhu
- Medical School, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Sulan Luo
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Biological Resources, Ministry of Education, Hainan University, Haikou, China.,Medical School, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
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Clayman CL, Connaughton VP. Neurochemical and Behavioral Consequences of Ethanol and/or Caffeine Exposure: Effects in Zebrafish and Rodents. Curr Neuropharmacol 2021; 20:560-578. [PMID: 34766897 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x19666211111142027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Revised: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Zebrafish are increasingly being utilized to model the behavioral and neurochemical effects of pharmaceuticals and, more recently, pharmaceutical interactions. Zebrafish models of stress establish that both caffeine and ethanol influence anxiety, though few studies have implemented co-administration to assess the interaction of anxiety and reward-seeking. Caffeine exposure in zebrafish is teratogenic, causing developmental abnormalities in the cardiovascular, neuromuscular, and nervous systems of embryos and larvae. Ethanol is also a teratogen and, as an anxiolytic substance, may be able to offset the anxiogenic effects of caffeine. Co-exposure to caffeine and alcohol impacts neuroanatomy and behavior in adolescent animal models, suggesting stimulant substances may moderate the impact of alcohol on neural circuit development. Here, we review the literature describing neuropharmacological and behavioral consequences of caffeine and/or alcohol exposure in the zebrafish model, focusing on neurochemistry, locomotor effects, and behavioral assessments of stress/anxiety as reported in adolescent/juvenile and adult animals. The purpose of this review is twofold: (1) describe the work in zebrafish documenting the effects of ethanol and/or caffeine exposure and (2) compare these zebrafish studies with comparable experiments in rodents. We focus on specific neurochemical pathways (dopamine, serotonin, adenosine, GABA, adenosine), anxiety-type behaviors (assessed with novel tank, thigmotaxis, shoaling), and locomotor changes resulting from both individual and co-exposure. We compare findings in zebrafish with those in rodent models, revealing similarities across species and identifying conservation of mechanisms that potentially reinforce co-addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carly L Clayman
- Department of Biology and Center for Neuroscience and Behavior American University, Washington, DC 20016, United States
| | - Victoria P Connaughton
- Department of Biology and Center for Neuroscience and Behavior American University, Washington, DC 20016, United States
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3
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Stefanello FV, Müller TE, Franscescon F, Quadros VA, Souza TP, Canzian J, Leitemperger J, Loro VL, Rosemberg DB. Taurine modulates behavioral effects of intermittent ethanol exposure without changing brain monoamine oxidase activity in zebrafish: Attenuation of shoal- and anxiety-like responses, and abolishment of memory acquisition deficit. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2021; 209:173256. [PMID: 34416220 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2021.173256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Revised: 07/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Prolonged alcohol consumption has been considered as an important risk factor for various diseases. Chronic ethanol (EtOH) intake is associated with deleterious effects on brain functions culminating in robust behavioral changes. Notably, drugs available to treat the effects of EtOH have low therapeutic efficacy so far. Taurine (TAU) appears as a promising neuroprotective molecule due to its pleiotropic action in the brain. Here, we investigated whether TAU plays a beneficial role in different behavioral domains of zebrafish submitted to an intermittent EtOH exposure model, specially focusing on social behavior, anxiety-like responses, and memory. Moreover, since monoamines play a role in EtOH-mediated responses, we also evaluated the influence of both TAU and EtOH exposures on brain monoamine oxidase (Z-MAO) activity. Fish were exposed to non-chlorinated water or 1% EtOH for 8 consecutive days (20 min per day). From the 5th day until the end of the experimental period (8th day), animals were kept in the absence or presence of TAU (42, 150, or 400 mg/L) 1 h per day immediately after EtOH exposure. Behavioral measurements started 24 h after the last EtOH exposure. We observed that TAU showed modest attenuating effects on shoaling behavior and anxiety-like responses, while 42 and 150 mg/L TAU abolished the memory acquisition deficit in the inhibitory avoidance task. Biochemical analysis revealed that TAU did not modulate EtOH-induced increase on brain Z-MAO activity. Collectively, our novel data show a potential beneficial effect of TAU in an intermittent EtOH exposure model in zebrafish. Moreover, these findings foster the growing utility of this aquatic species to investigate the neurobehavioral basis of EtOH- and TAU-mediated responses in vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flavia V Stefanello
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuropsychobiology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Natural and Exact Sciences Center, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil.
| | - Talise E Müller
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuropsychobiology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Natural and Exact Sciences Center, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Francini Franscescon
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuropsychobiology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Natural and Exact Sciences Center, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Vanessa A Quadros
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuropsychobiology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Natural and Exact Sciences Center, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Thiele P Souza
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuropsychobiology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Natural and Exact Sciences Center, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Julia Canzian
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuropsychobiology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Natural and Exact Sciences Center, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Jossiele Leitemperger
- Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; Laboratory of Aquatic Toxicology, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Vania L Loro
- Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; Laboratory of Aquatic Toxicology, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; Graduate Program in Animal Biodiversity, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Anenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Denis B Rosemberg
- Laboratory of Experimental Neuropsychobiology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Natural and Exact Sciences Center, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil; The International Zebrafish Neuroscience Research Consortium (ZNRC), 309 Palmer Court, Slidell, LA 70458, USA.
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Santo GD, de Veras BO, Rico E, Magro JD, Agostini JF, Vieira LD, Calisto JFF, Mocelin R, de Sá Fonseca V, Wanderley AG. Hexane extract from SpoSndias mombin L. (Anacardiaceae) prevents behavioral and oxidative status changes on model of Parkinson's disease in zebrafish. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2021; 241:108953. [PMID: 33310063 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2020.108953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The search for new therapies, derived from natural compounds in order to prevent and treat Parkinson's disease (PD) has aroused the interest of many researchers. Spondias mombin (L) has active constituents with known antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. The aim of this study was to evaluate the neuroprotective potential of the hexane extract of S. mombin (EHSm) in an experimental model of DP induced by rotenone in zebrafish. The analysis of GC/MS demonstrated cyclogallipharaol (13.88%) and dl-α-tocopherol (8.08%) mostly, while HPLC-DAD indicated the presence of quercetin (<5), quercetrin (6.54 mg/g) and rutin (8.83 mg/g). The zebrafish exposed for 4 weeks to rotenone (ROT, 3 μg/L) and EHSm (5, 15, 25 mg/L). EHSm (25 mg/L) was able to reverse the behavioral damage induced by ROT in the entries and time spent in the top area of the tank. The parameters biochemicals indicated of EHSm prevented oxidative stress (TBARS e total thiols), inflammation and dopamine uptake triggered by ROT, evidenced of increased on the CAT, SOD and GSH and decreased of GST, O2- production and NADPH oxidase activities. We conclude that EHSm demonstrate a neuroprotector effect mediated through anxiolytic and antioxidant activities. However, more studies are necessary to elucidate the exact mechanism underlying the effects of EHSm on DP induced by rotenone in zebrafish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glaucia Dal Santo
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Bruno Oliveira de Veras
- Departamento de Medicina Tropical, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Eduardo Rico
- Laboratório de Neurologia Experimental, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Saúde, Universidade do Extremo Sul Catarinense (UNESC), Criciúma, SC, Brazil
| | - Jacir Dal Magro
- Área de Ciências Ambientais, Universidade Comunitária da Região de Chapecó (Unochapecó), Chapecó, SC, Brazil
| | - Jotele Fontana Agostini
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Leucio Duarte Vieira
- Departamento de Fisiologia e Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Jean Felipe Fossá Calisto
- Área de Ciências Ambientais, Universidade Comunitária da Região de Chapecó (Unochapecó), Chapecó, SC, Brazil
| | - Ricieri Mocelin
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Farmacologia e Terapêutica, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Vitória de Sá Fonseca
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, PE, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Farmacologia e Terapêutica, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Almir Gonçalves Wanderley
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, PE, Brazil; Departamento de Fisiologia e Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, PE, Brazil.
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Agostini JF, Santo GD, Baldin SL, Bernardo HT, de Farias ACS, Rico EP, Wanderley AG. Gallic Acid Reverses Neurochemical Changes Induced by Prolonged Ethanol Exposure in the Zebrafish Brain. Neuroscience 2020; 455:251-262. [PMID: 33285238 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2020.11.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Gallic acid (GA) is a polyphenolic compound that has attracted significant interest due to its antioxidant action through free radical elimination and metal chelation. Ethanol is a highly soluble psychoactive substance, and its toxicity is associated with oxidative stress. In this context, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of GA on neurochemical changes in zebrafish brains exposed to ethanol. GA was first analyzed in isolation by treating the animals at concentrations of 5, 10, and 20 mg/L for 24 h and 48 h. The results revealed that the group exposed to 20 mg/L over a 24/48 h period exhibited increases in thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBA-RS) levels and 2',7'-dichlorofluorescein (DCFH) oxidation, demonstrating a pro-oxidant profile. Moreover, decrease in acetylcholinesterase (AChE) enzyme activity was observed. To investigate the effects of GA after ethanol exposure, the animals were divided into four groups: control; those exposed to 0.5% ethanol for 7 days; those exposed to 0.5% ethanol for 7 days and treated with GA at 5 and 10 mg/L on day 8. Treatment with GA at 5 and 10 mg/L reversed impairment of choline acetyltransferase activity and the damage to TBA-RS levels, DCFH oxidation, and superoxide dismutase activity induced by ethanol. Results of the present study suggest that GA treatment (20 mg/L) appeared to disrupt oxidative parameters in the zebrafish brain. GA treatment at 5 and 10 mg/L reversed alterations to the cholinergic system induced by prolonged exposure to ethanol in the zebrafish brain, probably through an antioxidant mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jotele Fontana Agostini
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Glaucia Dal Santo
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Samira Leila Baldin
- Translational Psychiatry Laboratory, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Extreme Southern Catarinense (UNESC), Criciúma, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Henrique Teza Bernardo
- Translational Psychiatry Laboratory, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Extreme Southern Catarinense (UNESC), Criciúma, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Ana Caroline Salvador de Farias
- Translational Psychiatry Laboratory, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Extreme Southern Catarinense (UNESC), Criciúma, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Eduardo Pacheco Rico
- Translational Psychiatry Laboratory, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Extreme Southern Catarinense (UNESC), Criciúma, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Almir Gonçalves Wanderley
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife, PE, Brazil; Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil.
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Trigueiro NSDS, Canedo A, Braga DLDS, Luchiari AC, Rocha TL. Zebrafish as an Emerging Model System in the Global South: Two Decades of Research in Brazil. Zebrafish 2020; 17:412-425. [PMID: 33090089 DOI: 10.1089/zeb.2020.1930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The zebrafish (Danio rerio) is an emerging model system in several research areas worldwide, especially in the Global South. In this context, the present study revised the historical use and trends of zebrafish as experimental models in Brazil. The data concerning the bibliometric parameters, research areas, geographic distribution, experimental design, zebrafish strain, and reporter lines, as well as recent advances were revised. In addition, the comparative trends of Brazilian and global research were discussed. Revised data showed the rapid growth of Brazilian scientific production using zebrafish as a model, especially in three main research areas (Neuroscience &and Behavior, Pharmacology and Toxicology, and Environment/Ecology). Studies were conducted in 19 Brazilian states (70.37%), confirming the wide geographic distribution and importance of zebrafish research. Results indicated that research related to toxicological approaches are widespread in Global South countries such as Brazil. Studies were performed mainly using in vivo tests (89.58%) with adult fish (59.75%) and embryos (30.67%). Moreover, significant research gaps and recommendations for future research are presented. The present study shows that the zebrafish is a suitable vertebrate model system in the Global South.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Silvestre de Souza Trigueiro
- Laboratory of Environmental Biotechnology and Ecotoxicology, Department of Biosciences and Technology, Institute of Tropical Pathology and Public Health, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, Brazil
| | - Aryelle Canedo
- Laboratory of Environmental Biotechnology and Ecotoxicology, Department of Biosciences and Technology, Institute of Tropical Pathology and Public Health, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, Brazil
| | - Daniel Lôbo de Siqueira Braga
- Laboratory of Environmental Biotechnology and Ecotoxicology, Department of Biosciences and Technology, Institute of Tropical Pathology and Public Health, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, Brazil
| | - Ana Carolina Luchiari
- Department of Physiology and Behavior, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, Brazil
| | - Thiago Lopes Rocha
- Laboratory of Environmental Biotechnology and Ecotoxicology, Department of Biosciences and Technology, Institute of Tropical Pathology and Public Health, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, Brazil
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Ceftriaxone Attenuated Anxiety-Like Behavior and Enhanced Brain Glutamate Transport in Zebrafish Subjected to Alcohol Withdrawal. Neurochem Res 2020; 45:1526-1535. [PMID: 32185643 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-020-03008-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Revised: 02/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Chronic and/or excessive consumption of alcohol followed by reduced consumption or abstention can result in Alcohol Withdrawal Syndrome. A number of behavioral changes and neurological damage result from ethanol (EtOH) withdrawal. Ceftriaxone (Cef) modulates the activity of excitatory amino acid transporters by increasing their gene expression. Zebrafish are commonly used to study alcohol exposure. The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of Cef (100 µM) on behavior patterns, glutamate transport activity, and oxidative stress in zebrafish brains subjected to EtOH (0.3% v/v) withdrawal. The exploratory tests using Novel tank showed that EtOH withdrawal promoted a decrease in the time spent and number of entries of in the bottom displaying an anxiety-like behavior. In contrast, treatment with Cef resulted in recovery of exploratory behavioral patterns. Ceftriaxone treatment resulted in increased glutamate uptake in zebrafish subjected to EtOH withdrawal. Furthermore, EtOH withdrawal increased reactive species, as determined using thiobarbituric acid and dichlorodihydrofluorescein assays. Treatment with Cef reversed these effects. Ceftriaxone promoted a significant reduction in brain sulfhydryl content in zebrafish subjected to EtOH withdrawal. Therefore, Cef treatment in conjunction with EtOH withdrawal induced anxiolytic-like effects due to possible neuromodulation of glutamatergic transporters, potentially through mitigation of oxidative stress.
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