Dietary effect of pomegranate seed oil on immune function and lipid metabolism in mice

Conjugated Linolenic Acid (CLnA) vs Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA): A Comprehensive Review of Potential Advantages in Molecular Characteristics, Health Benefits, and Production Techniques

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) has been extensively characterized due to its many biological activities and health benefits, but conjugated linolenic acid (CLnA) is still not well understood. However, CLnA has shown to be more effective than CLA as a potential functional food ingredient. Current research has not thoroughly investigated the differences and advantages between CLnA and CLA. This article compares CLnA and CLA based on molecular characteristics, including structural, chemical, and metabolic characteristics. Then, the in vivo research evidence of CLnA on various health benefits is comprehensively reviewed and compared with CLA in terms of effectiveness and mechanism. Furthermore, the potential of CLnA in production technology and product protection is analyzed. In general, CLnA and CLA have similar physicochemical properties of conjugated molecules and share many similarities in regulation effects and pathways of various health benefits as well as in the production methods. However, their specific properties, regulatory capabilities, and unique mechanisms are different. The superior potential of CLnA must be specified according to the practical application patterns of isomers. Future research should focus more on the advantageous characteristics of different isomers, especially the effectiveness and safety in clinical applications in order to truly exert the potential value of CLnA.

Suppression of tumor growth and apoptosis induction by pomegranate seed nano-emulsion in mice bearing solid Ehrlich carcinoma cells

Despite the high antioxidant and penetration ability of pomegranate seed oil (PSO), the in vivo antitumor activity of PSO nano-emulsion has not been well investigated. Therefore, this study was undertaken to estimate the antitumor activity and safety of PSO nano-emulsion in mice bearing Ehrlich solid carcinoma cells. For tumor inoculation, about 2 × 10⁶ viable Ehrlich tumor cells (200 µl) were implanted intramuscularly in the left thigh of hind leg. Once a solid tumor appears on the 10th day of transplantation; the mice were randomly divided into five groups (5 animals/group). Characterization of the PSO nano-emulsion using a Zeta sizer Malvern instrument and transmission electron microscope (TEM) revealed that the PSO nano-droplets were well dispersed with an average particle size of 8.95 nm and a spherical shape. Treatment with PSO nano-emulsions caused a significant reduction in the tumor size and weight, in a dose dependent manner, compared to tumor control group. Marked dose dependent elevations in the DNA damage level together with significant increases in the tumor suppressor p53, Bax and Caspase genes and reductions in the anti-apoptotic Bcl2 gene were also observed in the tumor tissue of mice given PSO nano-emulsions. Histological examination also revealed apoptosis and necrosis of tumor cells and tumor infiltration with inflammatory cells after PSO nano-emulsion treatment. However, high DNA damage was noticed in the liver and kidney tissues of mice given the highest dose of PSO nano-emulsion (400 mg/kg). Therefore, we concluded that PSO nano-emulsion exhibited a potent antitumor activity through induction of DNA breaks that triggers apoptosis of tumor cells but the highest dose caused genotoxicity to liver and kidney tissues, thus it is recommended to use doses lower than 400 mg/kg of PSO nano-emulsion as an alternative drugs for chemotherapy.

Pomegranate Seed Oil as a Source of Conjugated Linolenic Acid (CLnA) Has No Effect on Atherosclerosis Development but Improves Lipid Profile and Affects the Expression of Lipid Metabolism Genes in apoE/LDLR-/- Mice

The aim of this study was to evaluate the anti-atherosclerotic effect of pomegranate seed oil as a source of conjugated linolenic acid (CLnA) (cis-9,trans-11,cis-13; punicic acid) compared to linolenic acid (LnA) and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) (cis-9,trans-11) in apoE/LDLR^-/- mice. In the LONG experiment, 10-week old mice were fed for the 18 weeks. In the SHORT experiment, 18-week old mice were fed for the 10 weeks. Diets were supplied with seed oils equivalent to an amount of 0.5% of studied fatty acids. In the SHORT experiment, plasma TCh and LDL+VLDL cholesterol levels were significantly decreased in animals fed CLnA and CLA compared to the Control. The expression of PPARα in liver was four-fold increased in CLnA group in the SHORT experiment, and as a consequence the expression of its target gene ACO was three-fold increased, whereas the liver's expression of SREBP-1 and FAS were decreased in CLnA mice only in the LONG experiment. Punicic acid and CLA isomers were determined in the adipose tissue and liver in animals receiving pomegranate seed oil. In both experiments, there were no effects on the area of atherosclerotic plaque in aortic roots. However, in the SHORT experiment, the area of atherosclerosis in the entire aorta in the CLA group compared to CLnA and LnA was significantly decreased. In conclusion, CLnA improved the lipid profile and affected the lipid metabolism gene expression, but did not have the impact on the development of atherosclerotic plaque in apoE/LDLR^-/- mice.

Assessing the concentration of conjugated fatty acids within pomegranate seed oil using quantitative nuclear magnetic resonance (qNMR)

INTRODUCTION

Pomegranate seed is rich in oil, and seed oil of pomegranate consists of conjugated fatty acids with different percentages.

OBJECTIVES

The current contribution covers how to determine percentages of different isomeric conjugated fatty acids.

METHODS

The percentages of these isomers are analysed by quantitative nuclear magnetic resonance (qNMR) using benzoic acid as an internal reference chemical with a well-defined amount. Linear mathematical equations are developed for the quantitative analysis of fatty acids found in pomegranate seed oil.

RESULTS

The developed approach is utilised for the pomegranate seed oils prepared in the laboratory and tested for commercial samples. Among the oils derived at the laboratory, the Yeni Hicaz pomegranate cultivar seeds yielded the highest fraction of punicic acid. Among the acids, punicic acid was the one with the highest fraction, while linolenic acid was the one with the lowest percentage.

CONCLUSIONS

These results are important in identifying pomegranate seed oils. Among the commercial samples tested with the current approach, only one of them showed similar content analysis as in the laboratory-derived oils.

Superfruits in China: Bioactive phytochemicals and their potential health benefits - A Review

The term "superfruit" usually refers to certain fruits, which are rich in antioxidant components, therefore, are beneficial to human health. In China, there has been the concept of health preservation and dietary therapy through food intake in a long history. However, some other superfruits growing mainly in China have not attracted extensive attention, such as Cili, Goji berry, and sea buckthorn. Many studies suggested all of these superfruits showed strong antioxidant effects and anti-inflammatory activity in common. However, there are various other advantages and functions in different fruits. This article reviewed the research findings from the existing literature published about major antioxidant bioactive compounds and the potential health benefits of these fruits. The phytochemicals from superfruits are bioaccessible and bioavailable in humans with promising health benefits. More studies are needed to validate the health benefits of these superfruits. It would provide essential information for further research and functional food development.

A unique understanding of traditional medicine of pomegranate, Punica granatum L. and its current research status

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Pomegranate, Punica granatum L., has been used in traditional medicine in China and several regions of the world including Ayurveda, Islamic, and Persian for the treatment of atherosclerosis, diabetes, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and several types of cancer, as well as for peptic ulcer and oral diseases for hundreds of years. Presently, pomegranate is treated as both a "medicine food homology" herbal medicine and a healthy food supplemental product.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this work is to develop an overview of pomegranate in the context of the status of its traditional medicine theories, the spread along the Silk Road, ethnopharmacological uses, chemical compositions, pharmacological activities, toxicology, and the involved pathways.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Information on P. granatum L. was acquired from published materials, including monographs on medicinal plants, ancient and modern recorded classical texts; and pharmacopoeias and electronic databases (PubMed, Science Direct, Web of Science, Google Scholar, CNKI, and Wanfang Data).

RESULTS

Pomegranate has been used in many traditional medical systems throughout history. It is widely cultivated in Central Asia and spread throughout China along the Silk Road. Many phytochemicals, such as tannins, organic acids, flavonoids, alkaloids, and volatile oils have been identified from different parts of pomegranate, these compounds have a wide range of activities, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-oncogenic properties, as well as conferring resistance to cerebrovascular disease. Furthermore, A summary of the four promising pharmacological pathways is provided.

CONCLUSIONS

The traditional uses, chemical compositions, pharmacological activities, and signaling pathways of pomegranate are summarized comprehensively in the review. It can be treated as a guidance for the future clinical and basic research. The information provided in this review will be very useful for further studies to develop novel therapeutic directions for application of pomegranate.

Oxysterols and lipidomic profile of myocardium of rats supplemented with pomegranate seed oil and/or bitter melon aqueous extract - Cardio-oncological animal model research

A close link between cardiovascular diseases and cancer results from sharing the same modifiable risk factors (e.g. nutritional) and cardiotoxicity of anti-cancerous therapies. It justifies cardio-oncological preliminary studies on dietary factors, especially on those of possible anti-carcinogenic or cardioprotective properties. The main purpose was to evaluate the effect of pomegranate seed oil (PSO) and/or bitter melon extract (BME) supplementation of the diet of female rats suffering from mammary tumors on lipidomic profile (expressed as fatty acids, conjugated fatty acids (CFA), malondialdehyde (MDA), cholesterol and oxysterols content) of cardiac tissue. Total lipidomic profile and intensity of lipid peroxidation in hearts of DMBA-treated Sprague-Dawley rats and their healthy equivalents, both obtaining diet supplementation, were evaluated with different chromatographic techniques coupled with appropriate detection systems (GC-MS, GC-TOFMS, Ag+-HPLC-DAD, UF-HPLC-DAD). Dietary modifications neither diminished breast cancer incidence nor exerted explicit cardio-protective influence, however, they diminished cholesterol content, i.a. because of inhibition of the endogenous conversion of squalene to cholesterol in cardiac tissue. CFA were incorporated into cardiac tissue to a lesser extent in the cancerous process. PSO and BME anti-oxidant properties in pathological condition were only slightly reflected in MDA levels but not in oxysterols formation. Obtained results indicate considerable changes in dietary supplements' biological activity in pathological conditions and the need for clear distinction of drugs and dietary supplements, which is of utmost importance, especially for cancer survivors.

Pomegranate Seed Oil and Bitter Melon Extract Affect Fatty Acids Composition and Metabolism in Hepatic Tissue in Rats

Pomegranate seed oil (PSO) and bitter melon dried fruits (BME) are used as natural remedies in folk medicine and as dietary supplements. However, the exact mechanism of their beneficial action is not known. The aim of study was to assess how the diet supplementation with PSO and/or with an aqueous solution of Momordica charantia affects the metabolism of fatty acids, fatty acids composition and the level of prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) in rat liver. Animals (Sprague-Dawley female rats, n = 48) were divide into four equinumerous groups and fed as a control diet or experimental diets supplemented with PSO, BME or both PSO and BME for 21 weeks. Fatty acids were determined using gas chromatography with flame ionization detection. PSO added to the diet increased the rumenic acid content (p < 0.0001) and increased accumulation of n-6 fatty acids (p = 0.0001) in hepatic tissue. Enrichment of the diet either with PSO or with BME reduced the activity of Δ⁶-desaturase (D6D) (p = 0.0019), whereas the combination of those dietary factors only slightly increased the effect. Applied dietary supplements significantly reduced the PGE₂ level (p = 0.0021). No significant intensification of the influence on the investigated parameters resulted from combined application of PSO and BME. PSO and BME have potential health-promoting properties because they influence fatty acids composition and exhibit an inhibiting effect on the activity of desaturases and thus they contribute to the reduction in the metabolites of arachidonic acid (especially PGE₂).

Hypolipidemic and antioxidant activities of Trichosanthes kirilowii maxim seed oil and flavonoids in mice fed with a high-fat diet

Trichosanlhes kirilowii Maxim seed oil (TSO) is rich in conjugated linolenic acids, and the flavonoids (FLA) combined with n-3 fatty acids can effectively change the plasma antioxidant capacity. Hyperlipidemia and oxidative stress are one of the most important risk factors for cardiovascular disease. This study aims to evaluate the effect of the TSO, FLA, and TSO combined with FLA (TSOFLA) intake on hyperlipemia mice. TSO and TSOFLA administration resulted in a significant decline in serum levels of total cholesterol, triglycerides, and low density lipoprotein-cholesterol. TSOFLA improved the hepatic and serum antioxidant status as assessed by superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase activities, and reduced the levels of lipid peroxidation. Hematoxylin-eosin staining of liver and aorta tissue has shown a marked reduction of the hyperlipidemia-induced lesions by gavage TSOFLA. Compared with TSO and FLA, TSOFLA has more significant hypolipidemic and antioxidant activities, which effects may be correlated to the synergy between TSO and FLA. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Dyslipidemia is a common metabolic disorder, which is characterized by triglyceride levels increased, total cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Lipid-lowering treatment can reduce the expansion of coronary atherosclerosis, and particular the dietary lipids have important roles in controlling the concentrations of these risk factors. This is the first study evaluating the hypolipidemic and antioxidant activities effects of Trichosanlhes kirilowii Maxim seed oil (TSO), flavonoids (FLA), and TSO combined with FLA (TSOFLA) intake on hyperlipemia mice caused by a high-fat diet. The pharmacological effects of dietary TSOFLA are correlated to its high content of unsaturated fatty acids and flavonoids. This information can be of interest to the development of food supplements in the field of diseases associated with high-fat intakes such as cardiovascular diseases and adiposis.

Fruit seeds and their oils as promising sources of value-added lipids from agro-industrial byproducts: oil content, lipid composition, lipid analysis, biological activity and potential biotechnological applications

Thousands of tons of fruit seeds are discarded every year worldwide as agro-industrial byproducts. Fruit seeds have a high oil content, are rich in monounsaturated fatty acids (FA) and in n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated essential FA. Sterols, phospholipids, glycolipids, carotenoids, tocopherols and polyphenols are other seed phytochemicals that make them interesting from a commercial viewpoint. Fruit seeds have high potential as raw material for several industries, but their lipid profile remains poorly studied. Current analytical approaches for the analysis of lipids that are based on high-performance liquid chromatography and high-resolution mass spectrometry allow the separation and analysis of compounds with the accurate identification and structural characterization of molecular species in very small quantities. Even though lipidomic analysis of fruit seeds' lipids is still in its infancy, it will bring a new look over these value-added byproducts. This review covers the following topics: (a) the lipid content of various fruit seed oils; (b) their lipid composition (FA, triacylglycerol, sterol, phospholipid and glycolipid profiles), (c) current and future analytical methodologies for the analysis of lipids in fruit seeds; (d) biological activities of fruit seeds' extracts; and (e) potential biotechnological applications of fruit seed oils for their commercial valorization based on lipids.

Mammary cancer risk and serum lipid profile of rats supplemented with pomegranate seed oil and bitter melon extract

The objective of the present study was to determine the influence of dietary supplementation with pomegranate seed oil (PSO) and/or an aqueous extract of dried bitter melon fruits (BME) on breast cancer risk and fatty acid profile in serum of female rats with chemical carcinogen-inflicted mammary tumours. Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 96) were fed control diet or experimental diets supplemented with 0.15 ml PSO/day, BME or jointly PSO and BME. After 21 weeks mammary tumours were subjected to histopathological examination and in serum fatty acids, 8-isoprostaglandin F_2α content and indices of desaturases activity were analysed. Supplementation of the diet with PSO and BME did not inhibit the breast cancer formation. Conjugated linolenic acids (CLnA), present in PSO, were converted into cis-9, trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), however, its content was lower in groups treated with a carcinogen. A similar tendency was observed for the content of SFA, MUFA, PUFA, 8-iso PGF_2α and the activity of Δ⁶-desaturase. Enhanced pro-carcinogenic effect of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA), caused by applied supplements, may be a result of their influence on DMBA metabolism.

Effect of pomegranate seed oil on the expression of PPAR-γ and pro-inflammatory biomarkers in obese type 2 diabetic patients

Purpose

Diabetes is one of the most prevailed chronic diseases in the world. Pro-inflammatory cytokines play a key role in the type 2 diabetes mellitus. Pomegranate seed oil (PSO) has potential anti-inflammatory properties. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the antidiabetic effects of the use of PSO on the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-γ), pro-inflammatory biomarkers and lipid profile levels in obese type 2 diabetic patients.

Design/methodology/approach

In total, 52 patients were randomly assigned to the PSO (n = 26) and placebo (n = 26) groups. Subjects received daily PSO 3 g placebo (paraffin) in 1 g soft-gel capsules (along with breakfast, lunch and dinner meals) for eight weeks.

Findings

Serum levels of fasting blood sugar (FBS) decreased from 161.46 ± 34.44 to 143.50 ± 24.2 mg/dL (p = 0.008), IL-6 decreased from 5.17 ± 2.25 to 4.52 ± 1.90 (p = 0.049) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) significantly decreased from 9.17 ± 4.13 to 7.74 ± 2.44 pmol/mL in PSO group (p = 0.030). However, changes in the expression of PPAR-γ gene, serum levels of hs-CRP and lipid profile levels were not significant.

Research limitations/implications

Lack of PSO concentration measurements and the short duration of the study were the key limitations. Future randomized clinical trials with a longer period of follow-up are needed to assess the potential anti-diabetic effects of PSO.

Originality/value

Administration of PSO in obese type 2 diabetic patients reduced the levels of FBS, interleukin 6 and TNF-α; nevertheless, changes in the insulin, lipid profiles and hs-CRP were not significant.

Liver and serum lipids in Wistar rats fed a novel structured lipid containing conjugated linoleic acid and conjugated linolenic acid

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and conjugated linolenic acid (CLnA) have been known to have several health-promoting effects. The aim of this study was to introduce a novel structured lipid (SL) including both CLA and CLnA (cis9, trans11, cis13-18:3, punicic acid) into one triacylglycerol (TAG) molecule through enzymatic interesterification and investigate its effect on body weight, liver and serum lipids in Wistar rats. CLA oil, pomegranate seed oil (as a rich source of CLnA) and soybean oil (as a negative control) were applied as other experimental oils. The rats were fed the oils at 1500 mg/kg body weight per day via oral gavage for 45 days. Gas chromatography analysis showed that SL included CLnA and CLA in roughly equal concentrations. The in vivo study revealed that SL had the greatest effect on the reduction in liver lipid weight (4.65 g/100g of liver) and liver TAG (13.28 mg/g) compared to soybean oil (8.7 g/100g and 18.8 mg/g, respectively). High density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) in the serum of rats which were fed CLA oil significantly (p < 0.05) increased (from 0.95 to 1.14 mmol/l). Pomegranate seed oil reduced low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and total cholesterol (about 40% and 24% reduction, respectively). A remarkable TAG reduction (p < 0.05) was observed in all treated rats.

A Functional Food Mixture "Protector" Reinforces the Protective Immune Parameters against Viral Flu Infection in Mice

Background: Viral influenza infection causes serious health issues especially when an outbreak occurs. Although influenza virus vaccines are available and each year manufactures modify the vaccine depending on the expected mutated strain, it is still far from satisfactory, mainly in young children and older adults. Therefore, a product that can support and shape the immune system to protect against viral flu infections is highly essential. Methods: A functional food water-soluble mixture of pomegranate, red grape, dates, olive fruit, figs, and ginger extracts, termed herein “Protector”, was prepared and tested in stimulating/modulating the production of specific cytokines, and hemagglutinin inhibition (HAI) antibodies following viral flu vaccination in mice. Results: A single intraperitoneal or multiple oral administration for 1–7 days of “Protector” significantly increased the production of interferon (IFN)-γ and interleukin (IL)-12 in blood, spleen, and lungs of mice. When “Protector” was orally administered for one week following a single vaccine injection (primary immunization) or for two weeks (one week apart) following double vaccine injections (secondary immunization), mice significantly produced higher titers of HAI antibodies. This increase in HAI antibodies was associated with Pillow-inducing significant and different changes in vaccine-induced IFN-γ, IL-12, IL-6 and IL-22 following primary and secondary immunizations. Conclusions: “Protector” administration reinforces the protective immune parameters against viral flu infection. Therefore, after performing preclinical toxicology studies and ensuring its safety, “Protector” should be considered a potential product to be tested in clinical trials to conclude its efficacy in reducing the devastating effects of flu infection in humans and its outbreaks.

Punicic acid: A striking health substance to combat metabolic syndromes in humans

Punicic acid, a bioactive compound of pomegranate seed oil has gained wide attention for their therapeutic potential. Different studies conducted on animal and human models have revealed that punicic acid is very effective against various chronic diseases. Substantial laboratory works has been carried out to elaborate punicic acid effectiveness and mechanism of action in animals. The intention of this review article is to explore the facts about the clinical trials of punicic acid and to discuss different future strategies that can be employed to use it in human clinical trials. Although punicic acid may represent a novel therapeutic unconventional approach for some disorders, still further experimental studies are required to demonstrate its effects in human beings.

Effects of Dietary Punica granatum L. By-products on Performance, Immunity, Intestinal and Fecal Microbiology, and Odorous Gas Emissions from Excreta in Broilers

The fruit Punica granatum L. has been used for years in traditional medicine owing to the presence of several phytobiotics with antimicrobial and immunomodulatory properties. This study investigated the effects of dietary supplementation with Punica granatum L. by-products (PGB) on performance, immunity, intestinal and excreta microflora, and odorous gas emissions from excreta of broiler chickens. Three experimental diets containing 0, 0.5 and 1.0% PGB were fed to 240 one-day-old broiler chicks until 35 days. Dietary PGB linearly reduced the average daily feed intake and feed conversion ratio of broilers. Supplementation with 1% PGB led to a linear increase in the relative weight of the spleen and bursa of Fabricius. The concentration of serum IgA and IgG increased linearly in response to dietary PGB. In the ileal digesta, the concentration of Saccharomyces cerevisiae increased linearly and quadratically in response to dietary PGB. Moreover, dietary PGB led to a linear decrease in Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. alongside reducing the pH of the ileal digesta. In the cecal digesta, the concentration of Bacillus bacteria increased linearly in response to both levels of dietary PGB, while the concentrations of E. coli and Salmonella decreased when the diet was supplemented with 1% PGB, as did cecal pH. At 35 day, both levels of PGB increased the concentration of fecal Bacillus, whereas only 1% PGB increased the concentration of S. cerevisiae at 21 day. Increasing levels of PGB induce a linear reduction in fecal E. coli at 21 and 35 day, whereas Salmonella only at 21 day. Regarding the average of 48 h, dietary PGB effectively reduced the emissions of ammonia and methanethiol from broiler excreta. In conclusion, the results suggest that, dietary PGB improved immunity and the intestinal microbial ecosystem of broilers along with reduced odorous gas emissions from excreta.

Effects of Pomegranate Seed Oil on Metabolic State of Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

BACKGROUND

Rapid increasing prevalence of diabetes mellitus is a serious health concern in the world. New data determined that the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus is chronic low-grade inflammation, resulting insulin resistance. Pomegranate seed oil (PSO) has anti-inflammatory effects; though it may reduce insulin resistance and improve glycemia in diabetes mellitus. The present study has been designed to investigate the effects of PSO as a natural dietary component on metabolic state of patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus.

METHODS

In a randomized double-blind clinical trial study, 80 patients (28 men) with Type 2 diabetes were randomly allocated to the intervention and control groups. The intervention group consumed PSO capsules, containing 1000 mg PSO twice daily (2000 mg PSO), whereas controls take placebo for 8 weeks. The participants followed their previous dietary patterns and medication use. Dietary factors and metabolic factors including lipid profile, fasting plasma sugar, and insulin and were assayed at the baseline and after 8 weeks.

RESULTS

Participants in two intervention and control group were similar regarding anthropometric and the dietary factors at baseline and after trial (P > 0.05). Mean level of total cholesterol, triglyceride, low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol, and high-density lipoprotein was not different significantly between groups after trial (P > 0.05). Consumption of PSO did not significantly affect the levels of parameters such as fasting blood sugar (FBS), insulin, HbA1c, alanine transferase, and homeostasis model assessment-insulin resistance.

CONCLUSIONS

Consumption of 2000mg PSO per day for 8 weeks had no effect on FBS, insulin resistance and lipid profile in diabetic patients.

Haematological parameters, serum lipid profile, liver function and fatty acid profile of broiler chickens fed on diets supplemented with pomegranate seed oil and linseed oil

The objective of the present study was to determine effect of pomegranate seed oil (PSO) and linseed oil (LO) on haematological parameters, serum lipid profile and liver enzymes as well as fatty acids profile of adipose tissue in broilers. Broilers (n = 400) were fed on diets containing graded PSO levels (0.0%, 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%) with or without 2% LO. After 6 weeks of feeding, 6 male broilers from each group were slaughtered and abdominal fat, liver and blood samples were collected. Mixtures of pomegranate seed oil (0.5%, 1%) with linseed oil increased white blood cell level in broilers. Total cholesterol was elevated after LO supplementation whereas administration of PSO (1.5%) significantly decreased this parameter. PSO administration caused c9,t11 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) concentration-dependent deposition in adipose tissue. By LO addition α-linolenic acid (ALA) content was enhanced, decreasing the n-6/n-3 ratio. PSO and ALA also affected oleic acid proportion in adipose tissue. Neither pomegranate seed oil nor linseed oil had any effect on liver parameters. Pomegranate seed oil had no negative effects on broiler health status and can be considered as a functional poultry meat component.

Apricot Kernel Oil Ameliorates Cyclophosphamide-Associated Immunosuppression in Rats

The effects of dietary apricot kernel oil (AKO), which contains high levels of oleic and linoleic acids and lower levels of α-tocopherol, were evaluated in a rat model of cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression. Rats had intraperitoneal injection with cyclophosphamide to induce immunosuppression and were then infused with AKO or normal saline (NS) for 4 weeks. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays were used to detect antimicrobial factors in lymphocytes and anti-inflammatory factors in hepatocytes. Hematoxylin & eosin staining was conducted prior to histopathological analysis of the spleen, liver, and thymus. Significant differences were observed between the immune functions of the healthy control group, the normal saline group, and the AKO group. Compared to the normal saline-treated group, lymphocytes isolated from rats administered AKO showed significant improvement in immunoglobulin (Ig)A, IgM, IgG, interleukin (IL)-2, IL-12, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) levels (p < 0.01). Liver tissue levels of malondialdehyde and activities of superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase indicated reduced oxidative stress in rats treated with AKO (p < 0.01). Dietary AKO positively affected rat growth and inhibited cyclophosphamide-associated organ degeneration. These results suggested that AKO may enhance the immune system in vivo. These effects may reflect the activities of intermediate oleic and linoleic acid metabolites, which play a vital role in the immune system, and the α-tocopherol in AKO may further enhance this phenomenon. Thus, the use of AKO as a nutritional supplement can be proposed to ameliorate chemotherapy-associated immunosuppression.

Partial Reversal of Obesity-Induced Insulin Resistance Owing to Anti-Inflammatory Immunomodulatory Potential of Flaxseed Oil

The present study was designed to assess the potential of supplementation of diet with Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum, L.) oil (FXO), on obesity-related inflammation and reversal of obesity-induced insulin resistance. Swiss Albino mice, C57bl/6 mice and co-culture of 3T3-L1 adipocytes - RAW 264.7 macrophages to mimick obese adipose tissue environment were used for the study. Oral gavage of FXO at concentrations of 4, 8 or 16 mg/kg body weight (bwt) for 4 weeks or high-fat diet (HFD, 60% energy as fat) supplemented with dietary FXO (4, 8 or 16 mg/kg bwt) was given to the mice. FXO was characterised using gas chromatography - mass spectrometry. FXO supplemented HFD-fed mice (4 mg/kg bwt exhibited reduced adiposity index, serum glucose levels and triglycerides (8 and 16 mg/kg bwt) and improvement in insulin sensitisation (4, 8 and 16 mg/kg bwt) when compared with HFD mice. The co-culture showed a dose-dependent shift in cytokines towards anti-inflammatory (IL-4) state, with a decrease in pro-inflammatory TNF-α (p < 0.05). For immunomodulatory studies a dose-dependent increase (p < 0.05) was observed in antigen-specific levels of Th2 (IL-4) cytokine, serum anti-ova IgG1 and IgE levels. Suppression in anti-ova IgG2a, IgG2b, and IgG3 and antigen-specific Th1 cytokines like TNF-α and IFN-γ significantly (p < 0.05) was observed at 16 mg/kg bwt dosage. The results indicate that FXO exhibits an anti-inflammatory immunomodulatory potential and may partially relieve symptoms of obesity-associated insulin resistance.

Sources and Bioactive Properties of Conjugated Dietary Fatty Acids

The group of conjugated fatty acids known as conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) isomers have been extensively studied with regard to their bioactive potential in treating some of the most prominent human health malignancies. However, CLA isomers are not the only group of potentially bioactive conjugated fatty acids currently undergoing study. In this regard, isomers of conjugated α-linolenic acid, conjugated nonadecadienoic acid and conjugated eicosapentaenoic acid, to name but a few, have undergone experimental assessment. These studies have indicated many of these conjugated fatty acid isomers commonly possess anti-carcinogenic, anti-adipogenic, anti-inflammatory and immune modulating properties, a number of which will be discussed in this review. The mechanisms through which these bioactivities are mediated have not yet been fully elucidated. However, existing evidence indicates that these fatty acids may play a role in modulating the expression of several oncogenes, cell cycle regulators, and genes associated with energy metabolism. Despite such bioactive potential, interest in these conjugated fatty acids has remained low relative to the CLA isomers. This may be partly attributed to the relatively recent emergence of these fatty acids as bioactives, but also due to a lack of awareness regarding sources from which they can be produced. In this review, we will also highlight the common sources of these conjugated fatty acids, including plants, algae, microbes and chemosynthesis.

Incorporation and effects of punicic acid on muscle and adipose tissues of rats

BACKGROUND

This study evaluated the effect of pomegranate seed oil (PSO) supplementation, rich in punicic acid (55 %/C18:3-9c,11 t,13c/CLNA), on the lipid profile and on the biochemical and oxidative parameters in the gastrocnemius muscle and adipose tissues of healthy rats. Linseed oil (LO), rich in linolenic acid (52 %/C18:3-9c12c15c/LNA) was used for comparison.

METHODS

Male Wistar rats (n = 56) were distributed in seven groups: control (water); LNA 1 %, 2 % and 4 % (treated with LO); CLNA 1 %, 2 % and 4 % (treated with PSO), po for 40 days. The percentages were compared to the daily feed intake. Fatty acid profile were performed by gas chromatography, antioxidant enzymes activity by spectrophotometer and the adipocytes were isolated by collagenase tissue digestion. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied to check for differences between the groups (control, LNAs and CLNAs) and principal component analysis (PCA) was used to project the groups in the factor-place (PC1 vs PC2) based on the biochemical responses assessed in the study.

RESULTS

The fatty acids profile of tissues showed that the LNA percentages were higher in the animals that were fed LO. However, PA was only detected in the adipose tissues. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) was present in all the tissues of the animals supplemented with PSO, in a dose dependent manner, and 9c11t-CLA was the predominant isomer. Nevertheless there were no changes in the total weight gain of the animals, the weights of the tissues, and the oxidative stress parameters in the muscle. In addition, there was an increase in the size of the epididymal fat cells in the groups treated with PSO. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that the CLNAs groups were arranged separately with a cumulative variance of 68.47 %.

CONCLUSIONS

The results show that PSO can be used as a source of CLAs but that it does not cause changes in body modulation and does not interfere in the antioxidant activity of healthy rats.

Prophylactic effects of pomegranate (Punica granatum) juice on sodium fluoride induced oxidative damage in liver and erythrocytes of rats

The objective of this study was to investigate the protective effects of pomegranate (Punica granatum) juice (PGJ) on oxidative damages in liver tissue and erythrocytes of rats intoxicated by sodium fluoride (NaF). Rats were randomly divided into two groups: group I received standard diet and group II received orally 1 mL of PGJ. After 5 weeks of pretreatment, each group was divided again into two subgroups and treated for another 3 weeks as follows: group I was subdivided into a control group and a group that was treated with 100 ppm of NaF (in drinking water); group II was subdivided into one group that was treated daily with both 100 ppm NaF and PGJ (1 mL orally) and one that received daily 1 mL of pomegranate juice. Exposure to NaF decreased hematological parameters, changed the total protein, albumin, bilirubin levels, and increased the activities of hepatic marker enzymes. We also noted an increase in lipid peroxidation contents, accompanied by a decrease of reduced glutathione levels. Antioxidant enzyme activities in both tissues were modified in the NaF group compared with the control group. However, the administration of PGJ juice caused an amelioration of the previous parameters. Our results indicated the potential effects of NaF to induce oxidative damage in tissues and the ability of PGJ to attenuate NaF-induced oxidative injury.

The Immunomodulatory Activity of Jacaric Acid, a Conjugated Linolenic Acid Isomer, on Murine Peritoneal Macrophages

This study aims at demonstrating the immunomodulatory property of jacaric acid, a conjugated linolenic acid (CLNA) isomer that is present in jacaranda seed oil, on murine peritoneal macrophages. Our results showed that jacaric acid exhibited no significant cytotoxicity on the thioglycollate-elicited murine peritoneal macrophages as revealed by the neutral red uptake assay, but markedly increased their cytostatic activity on the T-cell lymphoma MBL-2 cells as measured by the fluorometric CyQuant® NF Cell Proliferation Assay Kit. Flow cytometric analysis indicated that jacaric acid could enhance the endocytic activity of macrophages and elevated their intracellular production of superoxide anion. Moreover, jacaric acid-treated macrophages showed an increase in the production of nitric oxide which was accompanied by an increase in the expression level of inducible nitric oxide synthase protein. In addition, the secretion of several pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interferon-γ, interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α, was up-regulated. Collectively, our results indicated that the naturally-occurring CLNA isomer, jacaric acid, could exhibit immunomodulating activity on the murine peritoneal macrophages in vitro, suggesting that this CLNA isomer may act as an immunopotentiator which can be exploited for the treatment of some immunological disorders with minimal toxicity and fewer side effects.

Health Benefits of Punicic Acid: A Review

Punicic acid (PA) is a polyunsaturated fatty acid (18:3 n-5), which is classified as a conjugated linolenic acid. PA is also referred as a "super CLnA" whose effect is even more potent than that of an ordinary CLnA. It is found mainly in the seeds of pomegranate fruit (Punica granatum) and Trichoxanthes kirilowii and some other minor sources. It possesses a wide array of biological properties including antidiabetic, antiobesity, antiproliferative, and anticarcinogenic activity against various forms of cancer. In spite of this, PA has not been explored as a nutraceutical or as an ingredient of food products which can be aimed at specific consumer target groups. This review details the various health-beneficial properties of PA and explores the possibilities of its utilization as an active ingredient in various food products.

Anti-allergic effect of the naturally-occurring conjugated linolenic acid isomer, jacaric acid, on the activated human mast cell line-1

The present study aimed to investigate the immunomodulatory effect of jacaric acid, a naturally-occurring conjugated linolenic acid isomer that can be found in jacaranda seed oil, on the activated human mast cell line-1 (HMC-1). Our previous studies have demonstrated that jacaric acid only exerted minimal, if any, cytotoxicity on normal murine cells. In the present study, jacaric acid at concentrations ≤100 µM did not exhibit direct cytotoxicity on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells after 72 h of incubation, as determined by the MTT reduction assay. By contrast, jacaric acid could alleviate the calcium ionophore A23187 and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate-triggered allergic response in the HMC-1 cells at concentrations that were non-cytotoxic to the HMC-1 cells. Following pre-treatment with jacaric acid, the secretion of two inflammatory mediators, β-N-acetylglucosaminidase and tryptase, as well as the T helper 2 cytokines [interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-13] was significantly reduced in HMC-1 cells. The alleviation of allergic response was accompanied by downregulation of the matrix metalloproteinase-2 and -9 proteins and upregulation of the tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 protein. Collectively, the results indicated that the naturally-occurring jacaric acid exhibits a suppressive effect on the allergic response in activated human mast cells in vitro, and this could not be attributed to the direct cytotoxicity of jacaric acid on the treated cells.

Protective effect of pomegranate seed oil against cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity in rat

PURPOSE

Clinical use of cisplatin is limited by its nephrotoxicity. Cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity is associated with an increase in oxidative stress, leading ultimately to kidney dysfunction. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of pomegranate seed oil against nephrotoxicity induced by cisplatin in adult rats.

METHODS

Animals were divided into four groups. Group I received corn oil (1 mL/kg). Group II received cisplatin (8 mg/kg). Group III and IV received pomegranate seed oil (PSO) 0.4 mL/kg and 0.8 mL/kg one hour before cisplatin injection for 3 days, respectively. Blood samples were collected by cardiac puncture and used for measuring urea and creatinine concentration. Twenty-hour urine samples were collected to measure protein and glucose concentration. The right kidney fixed in formalin for histological examination and the left kidney was homogenized for measurement of malondialdehyde and total sulfhydryl groups.

RESULTS

A significant elevation of serum creatinine, urea, urinary glucose, protein concentrations, and non-significant decrease in total thiol content and increase in MDA level in kidney homogenates were observed in cisplatin-treated rats. Also cisplatin reduced animal's body weight. Mild-to-moderate tubular cell necrosis, hyaline casts, and vascular congestion were observed in group II. PSO pre-treatment significantly decreased urinary protein, glucose, and serum creatinine concentration. PSO also caused a decrease in serum urea, renal MDA, and increase in thiol content, but the level of these parameters were not significant.

CONCLUSION

The present results suggest that PSO is an effective agent for the prevention of cisplatin-induced renal dysfunction and oxidative damage in rat.

Conjugated linolenic acids and their bioactivities: a review

Conjugated linolenic acid (CLNA) is a mixture of positional and geometric isomers of octadecatrienoic acid (α-linolenic acid, cis9,cis12,cis15-18:3 n-3) found in plant seeds. Three 8,10,12-18:3 isomers and four 9,11,13-18:3 isomers have been reported to occur naturally. CLNA isomers such as punicic acid, α-eleostearic acid and jacaric acid have been attributed to exhibit several health benefits that are largely based on animal and in vitro studies. This review has summarized and updated the evidence regarding the metabolism and bioactivities of CLNA isomers, and comprehensively discussed the recent studies on the effects of anti-carcinogenic, lipid metabolism regulation, anti-inflammatory, anti-obese and antioxidant activities of CLNA isomers. The available results may provide a potential application for CLNA isomers from natural sources, especially edible plant seeds, as effective functional food ingredients and dietary supplements for the above mentioned disease management. Further research, especially human randomized clinical trials, is warranted to investigate the detailed physiological effects, bioactivity and molecular mechanism of CLNA.