Social comparison processes in an organizational context: New directions

Differences in I-Deals Within Groups: A Multilevel Approach

Idiosyncratic deals (i-deals) are customized work arrangements that employees negotiate with their employer. Despite the burgeoning growth, i-deals research is primarily focused on the benefits to the recipients without sufficiently considering how differences in i-deals across group members can have implications at the group and individual levels. To better guide the nascent literature, we (a) conceptualize content, quantity, and magnitude as the three key bases upon which i-deals can differ; (b) explain why content of i-deals can reflect social or economic exchange; and (c) define relative i-deals, that is, how individual group members’ i-deals compare to coworkers, and group i-deals differentiation, that is, the degree of variability in team member i-deals, in actual and perceptual terms. In our multilevel theory development of differences in i-deals, we offer propositions on (a) effects of perceived relative i-deals on outcomes at the individual level, (b) effects of actual and perceived group i-deals differentiation on outcomes at the group level, and (c) perceived group i-deals differentiation as a moderator of the effects of perceived relative i-deals at the individual level. Lastly, we conclude with managerial implications and future directions for research.

Do Multiple I-Deals in a Team Help or Hinder Team Outcomes? A Resource Scarcity Perspective

Idiosyncratic deals (i-deals) are individualized employment arrangements negotiated and agreed upon by individual employees and their organization. This study addresses an emerging conundrum in i-deals research—whether the prevalence of i-deals in teams helps or hinders team outcomes. Because teams in which i-deals are prevalent receive more resources and status, they may be more cohesive and engage in more supportive behaviors. On the other hand, because i-deals differentiate among team members, teams in which i-deals are prevalent may be less cohesive and less inclined to engage in OCB. To solve this puzzle, we draw from a resource scarcity perspective to posit that understanding intra-team i-deal dynamics requires taking into account both organizational-level (i.e., organizational i-deal scarcity) and team-level (i.e., team power structure) factors. Using data from 40 organizations, 166 teams, and 1016 employees, we disentangle the complex interplay among the prevalence of i-deals in a team, organizational i-deal scarcity, and intra-team power structure in predicting both team cohesion and intra-team OCB.

Perception of Justice and Employees' Brand-Based Equity in the Service Sector: Evidence From Education Industry

This study aims to investigate the impact of justice perception of the employees on three dimensions of employee-based brand equity (EBBE) under the mediating role of psychological contract fulfillment. For this purpose, data have been collected from the employees of the education industry under the convenience sampling technique. In this regard, a survey method was used, and questionnaires were distributed among 420 respondents, out of which 310 questionnaires were received back, and after discarding 32 partially filled questionnaires, useable responses were left (279 observations). Data have been analyzed through structural equation modeling, and the partial least square (PLS)-SEM approach has been used in this regard through the Smart PLS software. Measurement and structural models were assessed, and all the indicators of reliability and validity have been found to be fit. Path estimation indicates that perception of justice promotes brand endorsement and brand allegiance, while the relationship of perception of justice and brand-consistent behavior has not been found statistically significant. Moreover, it has also been found that perception of justice ensures employees that their psychological contract has been met. In addition, psychological contract fulfillment has found a mediating mechanism between the perception of justice and the three dimensions of EBBE.

The effects of coworkers' development idiosyncratic deals on employees' cooperation intention

Idiosyncratic deals (i-deals) are individualized agreements of a nonstandard nature negotiated between employers and employees regarding employment terms, which are regarded as being beneficial for the organization. On the bases of social comparison theory and equity theory, we hypothesized that witnessing the development i-deals of their coworkers would trigger employees' feeling of unfairness, causing lower cooperation intention. We further hypothesized that perceived future i-deals and task interdependence would play moderating roles in this reduction. Participants were 284 employees in China. The results show that feelings of unfairness mediated the relationship between witnessing development i-deals and the witnesses' cooperation intention. The positive relationship between witnessing development i-deals and feelings of unfairness was weaker when employees perceived a stronger possibility of themselves obtaining a future i-deal, and a high level of task interdependence weakened the negative effect of feelings of unfairness on employees' cooperation intention.

Am I worthy to my leader? Role of leader-based self-esteem and social comparison in the LMX-performance relationship

BACKGROUND: Most leadership theories, such as transformational, ethical, and servant leadership, emphasize the notion that leaders influence their followers’ in-role and extra-role work performance by treating them collectively and similarly. On the other hand, leader-member exchange (LMX) theory challenges this idea and argues that leaders treat followers differently and have high-quality exchange relationships with some followers and low-quality ones with others. However, few studies have examined LMX differentiated relationships in social contexts. OBJECTIVE: This study aims to investigate the role of employee leader-based self-esteem (LBSE) (i.e., employees’ self-evaluation of their worth derived from the quality of the relationship with their supervisor) in the relationship between LMX and two types of performance: task performance and organizational citizenship behaviour at individual level (OCB-I). Using an integrated theoretical framework of social comparison and self-consistency theories, we develop a moderated mediation model in which the mediating role of LBSE in the LMX-task performance and OCB-I relationships is conditional on the values of LMX social comparison (LMXSC). METHODS: Using a research sample of 298 manager-employee matching dyads working in 43 branches of a leading bank in Pakistan, results of hierarchical multiple regression analyses provided support for our developed model. RESULTS: We found that LMX positively led to LBSE which, in turn, served as a mediator between LMX and both performance types, with a stronger effect on OCB-I. We also found that by moderating the relationship between LMX and LBSE, LMXSC moderated the mediating role of LBSE, which had stronger effect on performance at high values of LMXSC than at low values. CONCLUSIONS: Following these findings, we discuss the contributions that this study offers to LMX and self-esteem literature and its managerial implications.

Are your gains threat or chance for me? A social comparison perspective on idiosyncratic deals and coworkers' acceptance

Idiosyncratic deals (i-deals) refer to customized work arrangements and employment conditions employees negotiate with employers. Significant scholarly attention has been paid to understand the responses of i-deals' recipients. However, little attention has been paid to coworkers' reactions to the i-deals. This study examines how coworkers react to focal employees' i-deals. We tested our hypotheses with a sample of 253 employee–coworker pairs and found that coworkers are more likely to accept focal employees' flexibility i-deals than development i-deals. Specifically, we found that coworkers view focal employees' development i-deals as more threatening to their status than flexibility i-deals, and status threat mediates the relationship between development i-deals and coworkers' acceptance. In addition, flexibility i-deals increase coworkers' perception of obtaining future i-deals more than development i-deals, and this perception mediates the relationship between flexibility i-deals and coworkers' acceptance. Furthermore, the results show that coworkers' relative leader–member exchange moderates the above relationships.

It’s All Relative: A Team-Based Social Comparison Model for Self-Evaluations of Effectiveness

We apply social comparison theory (SCT) to the organizational context and develop a model explicating the social comparison process that occurs within organizational teams. In doing so, we highlight how individual, team, and managerial factors influence this process. First, we discuss how task-related (e.g., functional background and experience) and demographic-related (e.g., age, gender, and race) team characteristics affect social comparison target selection (i.e., the team as a whole, a subgroup, or a specific individual) and further explain the impact of metacognitive capacities on this referent selection process. Next, we explore how team norms of collaboration versus competition affect whether employees assimilate or contrast, respectively, during social comparisons. Subsequently, we highlight how managers influence the proposed social comparison process. Finally, we discuss how social comparisons can be productive or unproductive for team members’ organization-based self-esteem (OBSE). We conclude by discussing the theoretical and practical implications of our model and offering avenues for future research.

Dyadic Relationships

We provide a review of research on dyadic relationships in work settings. The development, maintenance, and termination of relationships are discussed. Considerable attention is placed on the context in which dyadic relationships take place. Most recent developments in the study of dyadic relationships have involved multilevel research designs that incorporate direct and moderating influences of contextual variables on relationships. A wide range of contextual variables are included, from immediate work group characteristics to overarching aspects of the context, such as national culture.

Antecedents and consequences of upward and downward social comparisons

Purpose

– The purpose of this paper is to extend and test a theory of uncertainty and directional social comparisons. Prior studies have posited that uncertainty leads to increased upward and downward social comparisons. The authors ' view is that uncertainty affects upward and downward comparisons differentially. They test their theory in the Chinese workplace, and focus specifically on employees’ comparisons of career progress. Workplace consequences of social comparisons are also investigated.

Design/methodology/approach

– The authors achieve their objectives by collecting data from respondents in China that measure uncertainty, directional social comparisons, organizational commitment and job satisfaction. They use a longitudinal design to assess causality.

Findings

– This paper found that perceived organizational support, an antecedent that lowers uncertainty in the workplace, is related to upward social comparison, whereas psychological entitlement, an uncertainty-raising antecedent, is related to downward social comparison. Upward social comparison positively affected organizational commitment, whereas downward social comparison positively impacted job satisfaction.

Research limitations/implications

– The data collection relied on self-reports and hence the findings may be adversely affected by common method bias. Another limitation involves the generalizability of results, given that the respondents were drawn from three large firms in China.

Originality/value

– This paper indicates that directional social comparison processes serve as an important mechanism for understanding how employees’ work attitudes are developed. It also demonstrates the applicability of social comparison theory to the study of organizational behavior in China.