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Oishi T, Koizumi S, Kurozumi K. Mesenchymal stem cells as therapeutic vehicles for glioma. Cancer Gene Ther 2024; 31:1306-1314. [PMID: 38654128 DOI: 10.1038/s41417-024-00775-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2023] [Revised: 04/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024]
Abstract
Glioma is a disease with a poor prognosis despite the availability of multimodality treatments, and the development of novel therapies is urgently needed. Challenges in glioma treatment include the difficulty for drugs to cross the blood-brain barrier when administered systemically and poor drug diffusion when administered locally. Mesenchymal stem cells exhibit advantages for glioma therapy because of their ability to pass through the blood-brain barrier and migrate to tumor cells and their tolerance to the immune system. Therefore, mesenchymal stem cells have been explored as vehicles for various therapeutic agents for glioma treatment. Mesenchymal stem cells loaded with chemotherapeutic drugs show improved penetration and tumor accumulation. For gene therapy, mesenchymal stem cells can be used as vehicles for suicide genes, the so-called gene-directed enzyme prodrug therapy. Mesenchymal stem cell-based oncolytic viral therapies have been attempted in recent years to enhance the efficacy of infection against the tumor, viral replication, and distribution of viral particles. Many uncertainties remain regarding the function and behavior of mesenchymal stem cells in gliomas. However, strategies to increase mesenchymal stem cell migration to gliomas may improve the delivery of therapeutic agents and enhance their anti-tumor effects, representing promising potential for patient treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoya Oishi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Shinichiro Koizumi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Kazuhiko Kurozumi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan.
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Ossanna R, Veronese S, Quintero Sierra LA, Conti A, Conti G, Sbarbati A. Multilineage-Differentiating Stress-Enduring Cells (Muse Cells): An Easily Accessible, Pluripotent Stem Cell Niche with Unique and Powerful Properties for Multiple Regenerative Medicine Applications. Biomedicines 2023; 11:1587. [PMID: 37371682 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11061587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell-based therapy in regenerative medicine is a powerful tool that can be used both to restore various cells lost in a wide range of human disorders and in renewal processes. Stem cells show promise for universal use in clinical medicine, potentially enabling the regeneration of numerous organs and tissues in the human body. This is possible due to their self-renewal, mature cell differentiation, and factors release. To date, pluripotent stem cells seem to be the most promising. Recently, a novel stem cell niche, called multilineage-differentiating stress-enduring (Muse) cells, is emerging. These cells are of particular interest because they are pluripotent and are found in adult human mesenchymal tissues. Thanks to this, they can produce cells representative of all three germ layers. Furthermore, they can be easily harvested from fat and isolated from the mesenchymal stem cells. This makes them very promising, allowing autologous treatments and avoiding the problems of rejection typical of transplants. Muse cells have recently been employed, with encouraging results, in numerous preclinical studies performed to test their efficacy in the treatment of various pathologies. This review aimed to (1) highlight the specific potential of Muse cells and provide a better understanding of this niche and (2) originate the first organized review of already tested applications of Muse cells in regenerative medicine. The obtained results could be useful to extend the possible therapeutic applications of disease healing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riccardo Ossanna
- Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine, and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, 37124 Verona, Italy
| | - Sheila Veronese
- Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine, and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, 37124 Verona, Italy
| | | | - Anita Conti
- Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine, and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, 37124 Verona, Italy
| | - Giamaica Conti
- Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine, and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, 37124 Verona, Italy
| | - Andrea Sbarbati
- Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine, and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, 37124 Verona, Italy
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Potent bystander effect and tumor tropism in suicide gene therapy using stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth. Cancer Gene Ther 2023; 30:85-95. [PMID: 36076062 DOI: 10.1038/s41417-022-00527-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2021] [Revised: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase (HSVTK)/ganciclovir (GCV) suicide gene therapy has a long history of treating malignant gliomas. Recently, stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHED), which are collected from deciduous teeth and have excellent harvestability, ethical aspects, and self-renewal, have been attracting attention mainly in the field of gene therapy. In the present study, we assessed SHED as a novel cellular vehicle for suicide gene therapy in malignant gliomas, as we have previously demonstrated with various cell types. SHED was transduced with the HSVTK gene (SHEDTK). In vitro experiments showed a significant bystander effect between SHEDTK and glioma cell lines in coculture. Furthermore, apoptotic changes caused by caspase 3/7 activation were simultaneously observed in SHEDTK and glioma cells. Mice implanted with a mixture of U87 and SHEDTK and treated with intraperitoneal GCV survived for longer than 100 days. Additionally, tumors in treatment model mice were significantly reduced in size during the treatment period. SHEDTK implanted at the contralateral hemisphere migrated toward the tumor crossing the corpus callosum. These results suggested that SHEDTK-based suicide gene therapy has potent tumor tropism and a bystander-killing effect, potentially offering a new promising therapeutic modality for malignant gliomas.
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Oishi T, Ito M, Koizumi S, Horikawa M, Yamamoto T, Yamagishi S, Yamasaki T, Sameshima T, Suzuki T, Sugimura H, Namba H, Kurozumi K. Efficacy of HSV-TK/GCV system suicide gene therapy using SHED expressing modified HSV-TK against lung cancer brain metastases. Mol Ther Methods Clin Dev 2022; 26:253-265. [PMID: 35892087 PMCID: PMC9307584 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtm.2022.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Lung cancer is one of the most common cancers, and the number of patients with intracranial metastases is increasing. Previously, we developed an enzyme prodrug suicide gene therapy based on the herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase (HSV-TK)/ganciclovir (GCV) system using various mesenchymal stem cells to induce apoptosis in malignant gliomas through bystander killing effects. Here, we describe stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHED) as gene vehicles of the TK/GCV system against a brain metastasis model of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). We introduced the A168H mutant TK (TKA168H) into SHED to establish the therapeutic cells because of the latent toxicity of wild type. SHED expressing TKA168H (SHED-TK) exhibited chemotaxis to the conditioned medium of NSCLC and migrated toward implanted NSCLC in vivo. SHED-TK demonstrated a strong bystander effect in vitro and in vivo and completely eradicated H1299 NSCLC in the brain. SHED-TK cells implanted intratumorally followed by GCV administration significantly suppressed the growth of H1299 and improved survival time. These results indicate that the TKA168H variant is suitable for establishing therapeutic cells and that intratumoral injection of SHED-TK followed by GCV administration may be a useful strategy for therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoya Oishi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Masahiko Ito
- Department of Virology and Parasitology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Shinichiro Koizumi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Makoto Horikawa
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Taisuke Yamamoto
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Satoru Yamagishi
- Department of Organ and Tissue Anatomy, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan.,Preeminent Medical Photonics Education and Research Center, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Tomohiro Yamasaki
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Tetsuro Sameshima
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Tetsuro Suzuki
- Department of Virology and Parasitology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Haruhiko Sugimura
- Department of Tumor Pathology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Hiroki Namba
- Department of Neurosurgery, Enshu Hospital, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Kazuhiko Kurozumi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu, Japan
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Oishi T, Koizumi S, Kurozumi K. Molecular Mechanisms and Clinical Challenges of Glioma Invasion. Brain Sci 2022; 12:brainsci12020291. [PMID: 35204054 PMCID: PMC8870089 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12020291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioma is the most common primary brain tumor, and its prognosis is poor. Glioma cells are highly invasive to the brain parenchyma. It is difficult to achieve complete resection due to the nature of the brain tissue, and tumors that invade the parenchyma often recur. The invasiveness of tumor cells has been studied from various aspects, and the related molecular mechanisms are gradually becoming clear. Cell adhesion factors and extracellular matrix factors have a strong influence on glioma invasion. The molecular mechanisms that enhance the invasiveness of glioma stem cells, which have been investigated in recent years, have also been clarified. In addition, it has been discussed from both basic and clinical perspectives that current therapies can alter the invasiveness of tumors, and there is a need to develop therapeutic approaches to glioma invasion in the future. In this review, we will summarize the factors that influence the invasiveness of glioma based on the environment of tumor cells and tissues, and describe the impact of the treatment of glioma on invasion in terms of molecular biology, and the novel therapies for invasion that are currently being developed.
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Wei D, Hou J, Zheng K, Jin X, Xie Q, Cheng L, Sun X. Suicide Gene Therapy Against Malignant Gliomas by the Local Delivery of Genetically Engineered Umbilical Cord Mesenchymal Stem Cells as Cellular Vehicles. Curr Gene Ther 2020; 19:330-341. [PMID: 31657679 DOI: 10.2174/1566523219666191028103703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2019] [Revised: 10/13/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Glioblastoma (GBM) is a malignant tumor that is difficult to eliminate, and new therapies are thus strongly desired. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have the ability to locate to injured tissues, inflammation sites and tumors and are thus good candidates for carrying antitumor genes for the treatment of tumors. Treating GBM with MSCs that have been transduced with the herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase (HSV-TK) gene has brought significant advances because MSCs can exert a bystander effect on tumor cells upon treatment with the prodrug ganciclovir (GCV). OBJECTIVE In this study, we aimed to determine whether HSV-TK-expressing umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (MSCTKs) together with prodrug GCV treatment could exert a bystander killing effect on GBM. METHODS AND RESULTS Compared with MSCTK: U87 ratio at 1:10,1:100 and 1:100, GCV concentration at 2.5µM or 250µM, when MSCTKs were cocultured with U87 cells at a ratio of 1:1, 25 µM GCV exerted a more stable killing effect. Higher amounts of MSCTKs cocultured with U87 cells were correlated with a better bystander effect exerted by the MSCTK/GCV system. We built U87-driven subcutaneous tumor models and brain intracranial tumor models to evaluate the efficiency of the MSCTK/GCV system on subcutaneous and intracranial tumors and found that MSCTK/GCV was effective in both models. The ratio of MSCTKs and tumor cells played a critical role in this therapeutic effect, with a higher MSCTK/U87 ratio exerting a better effect. CONCLUSION This research suggested that the MSCTK/GCV system exerts a strong bystander effect on GBM tumor cells, and this system may be a promising assistant method for GBM postoperative therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Wei
- Institute of Reproductive and Stem Cell Engineering, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.,National Engineering and Research Center of Human Stem Cell, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - JiaLi Hou
- Institute of Reproductive and Stem Cell Engineering, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.,National Engineering and Research Center of Human Stem Cell, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Ke Zheng
- Institute of Reproductive and Stem Cell Engineering, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.,National Engineering and Research Center of Human Stem Cell, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Xin Jin
- Institute of Reproductive and Stem Cell Engineering, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.,National Engineering and Research Center of Human Stem Cell, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Qi Xie
- Institute of Reproductive and Stem Cell Engineering, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.,National Engineering and Research Center of Human Stem Cell, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Lamei Cheng
- Institute of Reproductive and Stem Cell Engineering, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.,National Engineering and Research Center of Human Stem Cell, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Xuan Sun
- Institute of Reproductive and Stem Cell Engineering, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.,National Engineering and Research Center of Human Stem Cell, Changsha, Hunan, China
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Kenmochi H, Yamasaki T, Koizumi S, Sameshima T, Namba H. Nicotine does not affect stem cell properties requisite for suicide gene therapy against glioma. Neurol Res 2020; 42:818-827. [PMID: 32588772 DOI: 10.1080/01616412.2020.1782123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE: Glioblastoma is one of the most lethal tumors in adult central nervous system with a median survival of a year and half and effective therapeutic strategy is urgently needed. For that reason, stem cell-based suicide gene therapies have attracted much interest because of potent tumor tropism of stem cells and bystander effect. In this current clinical situation, stem cells are promising delivery tool of suicide genes for glioma therapy. Since habitual cigarette smoking still prevails worldwide, we investigated the effect of nicotine on stem cell tropism toward glioma and gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC) function between glioma and stem cells, both of which are important for suicide gene therapies. Methods: Mouse induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neural stem cells (iPS-NSCs) and human dental pulp mesenchymal stem cells (DPSCs) were used. The effect of nicotine on tumor tropism to glioma-conditioned medium (CM) at a non-cytotoxic concentration was assessed with Matrigel invasion assay. Nicotine effect on GJIC was assessed with the scrape loading/dye transfer (SL/DT) assay for co-culture of glioma and stem cells and the parachute assay among glioma cells using high-content analysis. Results: Tumor tropism of iPS-NSCs toward GL261-CM and DPSCs toward U251-CM was not affected by nicotine (0.1 and 1 µM). Nicotine at the concentrations equivalent to habitual smoking (1 µM) did not affect GJIC of iPS-NSC/GL261 and DPSC/U251 and GJIC among each glioma cells. Conclusions: The study demonstrated that non-cytotoxic concentrations of nicotine did not significantly change the stem cell properties requisite for stem cell-based suicide gene therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroaki Kenmochi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine , Higashi-ku, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Tomohiro Yamasaki
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine , Higashi-ku, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Shinichiro Koizumi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine , Higashi-ku, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Tetsuro Sameshima
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine , Higashi-ku, Hamamatsu, Japan
| | - Hiroki Namba
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine , Higashi-ku, Hamamatsu, Japan
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Leng Z, Sun D, Huang Z, Tadmori I, Chiang N, Kethidi N, Sabra A, Kushida Y, Fu YS, Dezawa M, He X, Young W. Quantitative Analysis of SSEA3+ Cells from Human Umbilical Cord after Magnetic Sorting. Cell Transplant 2019; 28:907-923. [PMID: 30997834 PMCID: PMC6719495 DOI: 10.1177/0963689719844260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Multilineage-differentiating stress-enduring (Muse) cells are a population of pluripotent stage-specific embryonic antigen 3 (SSEA3)+ mesenchymal stem cells first described by Mari Dezawa in 2010. Although some investigators have reported SSEA3+ mesenchymal cells in umbilical cord tissues, none have quantitatively compared SSEA3+ cells isolated from Wharton’s jelly (WJ) and the cord lining (CL) of human umbilical cords (HUCs). We separated WJ and the CL from HUCs, cultured mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) isolated from these two tissues with collagenase, and quantified the percentage of SSEA3+ cells over three passages. The first passage had 5.0% ± 4.3% and 5.3% ± 5.1% SSEA3+ cells from WJ and the CL, respectively, but the percentage of SSEA3+ cells decreased significantly (P < 0.05) between P0 and P2 in the CL group and between P0 and P1 in the WJ group. Magnetic-activated cell sorting (MACS) markedly enriched SSEA3+ cells to 91.4% ± 3.2%. Upon culture of the sorted population, we found that the SSEA3+ percentage ranged from 62.5% to 76.0% in P2–P5 and then declined to 42.0%–54.7% between P6 and P9. At P10, the cultures contained 37.4% SSEA3+ cells. After P10, we resorted the cells and achieved 89.4% SSEA3+ cells in culture. The procedure for MACS-based enrichment of SSEA3+ cells, followed by expansion in culture and a re-enrichment step, allows the isolation of many millions of SSEA3+ cells in relatively pure culture. When cultured, the sorted SSEA3+ cells differentiated into embryoid spheres and survived 4 weeks after transplant into a contused Sprague-Dawley rat spinal cord. The transplanted SSEA3+ cells migrated into the injury area from four injection points around the contusion site and did not produce any tumors. The umbilical cord is an excellent source of fetal Muse cells, and our method allows the practical and efficient isolation and expansion of relatively pure populations of SSEA3+ Muse cells that can be matched by human leukocyte antigen for transplantation in human trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zikuan Leng
- 1 Department of Orthopedics, Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China.,2 W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA
| | - Dongming Sun
- 2 W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA
| | - Zihao Huang
- 3 Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei
| | - Iman Tadmori
- 2 W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA
| | - Ning Chiang
- 2 W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA
| | - Nikhit Kethidi
- 2 W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA
| | - Ahmed Sabra
- 2 W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA
| | - Yoshihiro Kushida
- 4 Department of Stem Cell Biology and Histology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Yu-Show Fu
- 3 Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei
| | - Mari Dezawa
- 4 Department of Stem Cell Biology and Histology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Xijing He
- 1 Department of Orthopedics, Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Wise Young
- 2 W.M. Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience, Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA
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Leng Z, Kethidi N, Chang AJ, Sun L, Zhai J, Yang Y, Xu J, He X. Muse cells and Neurorestoratology. JOURNAL OF NEURORESTORATOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.26599/jnr.2019.9040005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Multilineage-differentiating stress-enduring (Muse) cells were discovered in 2010 as a subpopulation of mesenchymal stroma cells (MSCs). Muse cells can self-renew and tolerate severe culturing conditions. These cells can differentiate into three lineage cells spontaneously or in induced medium but do not form teratoma in vitro or in vivo. Central nervous system (CNS) diseases, such as intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), cerebral infarction, and spinal cord injury are normally disastrous. Despite numerous therapy strategies, CNS diseases are difficult to recover. As a novel kind of pluripotent stem cells, Muse cells have shown great regeneration capacity in many animal models, including acute myocardial infarction, hepatectomy, and acute cerebral ischemia (ACI). After injection into injury sites, Muse cells survived, migrated, and differentiated into functional neurons with synaptic junctions to local neurons and contributed to recovery of function. Furthermore, Muse cell differentiation did not need to be induced pre-transplantation and no tumors were observed post- transplantation. The Muse cell population is promising and may lead to a revolution in regenerative medicine. This review focuses on recent advances regarding the Muse cells therapies in Neurorestoratology and discusses future perspectives in this field.
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