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Martínez N, Barberia I, Rodríguez-Ferreiro J. Proneness to false memory generation predicts pseudoscientific belief endorsement. Cogn Res Princ Implic 2024; 9:39. [PMID: 38902418 PMCID: PMC11190135 DOI: 10.1186/s41235-024-00568-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Among cognitive factors that can influence the endorsement of pseudoscientific beliefs, our study focuses on proneness to false memory generation. In this preregistered study, we presented 170 fluent English speakers residing in the USA with a misinformation task aimed at generating false memories. In this task, they first completed an event encoding stage, in which two events were narrated through sequentially presented pictures. One day later, they read a series of sentences relating the same events but which included several inaccurate descriptions aimed at producing a misinformation effect. Finally, we measured the influence of the misinformation manipulation over false memory generation. After completing the misinformation task, participants responded to a questionnaire measuring pseudoscientific beliefs. Our results showed a positive correlation between pseudoscience endorsement and false memory rates, which indicates that the latter might be a key factor influencing susceptibility to pseudoscience. To our knowledge, this is the first study showing a link between the tendency to believe in pseudoscience and variability regarding proneness to develop false memories. Practical implications for the design of new interventions to effectively reduce pseudoscientific beliefs and their negative impact on our society are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naroa Martínez
- Grup de Recerca en Cognició i Llenguatge (GRECIL), Departament de Cognició, Desenvolupament i Psicologia de la Educació, Secció de Processos Cognitius, Institut de Neurociències (INUB), Facultat de Psicologia, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), Passeig de La Vall d'Hebron, 171, 08035, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Itxaso Barberia
- Grup de Recerca en Cognició i Llenguatge (GRECIL), Departament de Cognició, Desenvolupament i Psicologia de la Educació, Secció de Processos Cognitius, Institut de Neurociències (INUB), Facultat de Psicologia, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), Passeig de La Vall d'Hebron, 171, 08035, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Javier Rodríguez-Ferreiro
- Grup de Recerca en Cognició i Llenguatge (GRECIL), Departament de Cognició, Desenvolupament i Psicologia de la Educació, Secció de Processos Cognitius, Institut de Neurociències (INUB), Facultat de Psicologia, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), Passeig de La Vall d'Hebron, 171, 08035, Barcelona, Spain.
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2
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Lentoor AG. Cognitive and neural mechanisms underlying false memories: misinformation, distortion or erroneous configuration? AIMS Neurosci 2023; 10:255-268. [PMID: 37841346 PMCID: PMC10567586 DOI: 10.3934/neuroscience.2023020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Revised: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Errors can affect our memory, yet even when there are gaps in our recollection of events, memory often serves us fairly well. Memory formation involves at least three different sub-processes, that are regulated by an underlying neural structure. From a cognitive neuropsychological perspective, a complex process of encoding, consolidating, and retrieval is involved in remembering an event, and it might be hindered by one's emotional state, physiological response to the event itself, and misinformation. As a result, it is very likely that one may struggle to remember specifics of what happened which can increase our susceptibility to the formation of false memories. This has major implications for everyday functioning, as in the case when you mistakenly remember you took your pills when you never did, or where errors have led to false accusations about trauma or abuse, and wrongful convictions of crimes. Memories sometimes contain biases and inaccuracies that prevent them from accurately recalling events. The review will provide an updated overview of current research advances on the cognitive and neural mechanisms underlying inaccurate, distorted, or false memories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio G. Lentoor
- Department of Clinical Psychology, School of Medicine, Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University, South Africa
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3
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Xiao X. Not doomed: Examining the path from misinformation exposure to verification and correction in the context of COVID-19 pandemic. TELEMATICS AND INFORMATICS 2022; 74:101890. [PMID: 36213556 PMCID: PMC9527493 DOI: 10.1016/j.tele.2022.101890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Revised: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 09/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Misinformation exposure has attracted growing scholarly attention. While much research highlights misinformation exposure's negative impacts, this study argues that its positive effects should also be noted. By using a more precise measurement of misinformation exposure and a path model, this study outlines a path from misinformation exposure to anti-misinformation behaviors, partially mediated by misperceptions in the context of COVID-19. Findings indicate that exposure to popular but widely-denounced COVID-19 misinformation via social media had positive effects on verification intention. Frequent exposure to misinformation on social media is associated with lower misperceptions, suggesting a healthy dose of skepticism toward the platform and low internalization of misinformation. Special attention, however, needs to be paid to online news websites and personal contacts as misinformation sources. More tailored interventions and communication strategies to reduce misperceptions and increase media-literate behaviors are needed for younger, conservative, and ethnic minority individuals. Theoretical and practical implications are further discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xizhu Xiao
- School of Literature, Journalism and Communication, Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong 266071, China
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4
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Greene CM, de Saint Laurent C, Hegarty K, Murphy G. False memories for true and false vaccination information form in line with pre-existing vaccine opinions. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2022; 36:ACP4002. [PMID: 36250192 PMCID: PMC9537901 DOI: 10.1002/acp.4002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Misinformation continually threatens efforts to control the COVID-19 pandemic, with vaccine misinformation now a key concern. False memories for misinformation can influence behavioural intentions, yet little is known about the factors affecting (false) memories for vaccine-related news items. Across two experiments (total n = 1481), this paper explores the effects of pre-existing vaccine opinions on reported memories for true and false news items. In Study 1, participants (n = 817) were exposed to fabricated pro- or anti-vaccine news items, and then asked if they have a memory of this news event having occurred. In Study 2, participants (n = 646) viewed true pro- or anti-vaccine news items. News items were more likely to be remembered when they aligned with participants' pre-existing vaccine beliefs, with stronger effects for pro-vaccine information. We conclude by encouraging researchers to consider the role of attitudinal bias when developing interventions to reduce susceptibility to misinformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ciara M. Greene
- School of PsychologyUniversity College DublinDublin 4Ireland
| | | | - Karen Hegarty
- School of PsychologyUniversity College DublinDublin 4Ireland
| | - Gillian Murphy
- School of Applied PsychologyUniversity College CorkCorkIreland
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5
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Brown O, Smith LGE, Davidson BI, Ellis DA. The problem with the internet: An affordance-based approach for psychological research on networked technologies. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2022; 228:103650. [PMID: 35772312 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2022] [Revised: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The internet is often viewed as the source of a myriad of benefits and harms. However, there are problems with using this notion of "the internet" and other high-level concepts to explain the influence of communicating via everyday networked technologies on people and society. Here, we argue that research on social influence in computer-mediated communication (CMC) requires increased precision around how and why specific features of networked technologies interact with and impact psychological processes and outcomes. By reviewing research on the affordances of networked technologies, we demonstrate how the relationship between features of "the internet" and "online behaviour" can be determined by both the affordances of the environment and the psychology of the user and community. To achieve advances in this field, we argue that psychological science must provide nuanced and precise conceptualisations, operationalisations, and measurements of "internet use" and "online behaviour". We provide a template for how future research can become more systematic by examining how and why variables associated with the individual user, networked technologies, and the online community interact and intersect. If adopted, psychological science will be able to make more meaningful predictions about online and offline outcomes associated with communicating via networked technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia Brown
- School of Management, University of Bath, United Kingdom.
| | - Laura G E Smith
- Department of Psychology, University of Bath, United Kingdom.
| | - Brittany I Davidson
- School of Management, University of Bath, United Kingdom; Department of Engineering, University of Bristol, United Kingdom.
| | - David A Ellis
- School of Management, University of Bath, United Kingdom.
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6
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Borah P, Su Y, Xiao X, Lai Lee DK. Incidental news exposure and COVID-19 misperceptions: A moderated-mediation model. COMPUTERS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2021.107173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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7
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Xiao X, Su Y. Wired to seek, comment and share? Examining the relationship between personality, news consumption and misinformation engagement. ONLINE INFORMATION REVIEW 2022. [DOI: 10.1108/oir-10-2021-0520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
PurposeNews consumption is critical in creating informed citizenry; however, in the current context of media convergence, news consumption becomes more complex as social media becomes a primary news source rather than news media. The current study seeks to answer three questions: why the shifted pattern of news seeking only happens to some but not all of the news consumers; whether the differentiated patterns of news seeking (news media vs social media) would result in different misinformation engagement behaviors; and whether misperceptions would moderate the relationship between news consumption and misinformation engagement.Design/methodology/approachA survey consisted of questions related to personality traits, news seeking, misperceptions and misinformation engagement was distributed to 551 individuals. Multiple standard regression and PROCESS Macro model 1 were used to examine the intricate relationships between personality, news use and misinformation engagement.FindingsResults indicate that extroversion was positively associated with social media news consumption while openness was inversely related to it. Social media news consumption in turn positively predicted greater misinformation sharing and commenting. No association was found between Big Five personality traits and news media news seeking. News media news seeking predicted higher intention to reply to misinformation. Both relationships were further moderated by misperceptions that individuals with greater misperceptions were more likely to engage with misinformation.Originality/valueThe current study integrates personality traits, news consumption and misperceptions in understanding misinformation engagement behaviors. Findings suggest that news consumption via news media in the digital era merits in-depth examinations as it may associate with more complex background factors and also incur misinformation engagement. Social media news consumption deserves continuous scholarly attention. Specifically, extra attention should be devoted to extrovert and pragmatic individuals in future research and interventions. People with these characteristics are more prone to consume news on social media and at greater risk of falling prey to misinformation and becoming a driving force for misinformation distribution.Peer reviewThe peer review history for this article is available at: https://publons.com/publon/10.1108/OIR-10-2021-0520
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8
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Leon CS, Bonilla M, Urreta Benítez FA, Brusco LI, Wang J, Forcato C. Impairment of aversive episodic memories during Covid-19 pandemic: The impact of emotional context on memory processes. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2022; 187:107575. [PMID: 34973419 PMCID: PMC8715633 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2021.107575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2021] [Revised: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The threatening context of the COVID-19 pandemic provided a unique setting to study the effects of negative psychological symptoms on memory processes. Episodic memory is an essential function of the human being related to the ability to store and remember experiences and anticipate possible events in the future. Studying this function in this context is crucial to understand what effects the pandemic will have on the formation of episodic memories. To study this, the formation of episodic memories was evaluated by free recall, recognition, and episode order tasks for an aversive and neutral content. The results indicated that aversive episodic memory is impaired both in the free recall task and in the recognition task. Even the beneficial effect that emotional memory usually has for the episodic order was undermined as there were no differences between the neutral and aversive condition. The present work adds to the evidence that indicates that the level of activation does not modify memory processes in a linear way, which also depends on the type of recall and the characteristics of the content to be encoded.
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Affiliation(s)
- Candela Sofía Leon
- Laboratorio de Sueño y Memoria, Departamento de Ciencias de la Vida, Instituto Tecnológico de Buenos Aires (ITBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina; Innocence Project Argentina, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Matías Bonilla
- Laboratorio de Sueño y Memoria, Departamento de Ciencias de la Vida, Instituto Tecnológico de Buenos Aires (ITBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Facundo Antonio Urreta Benítez
- Laboratorio de Sueño y Memoria, Departamento de Ciencias de la Vida, Instituto Tecnológico de Buenos Aires (ITBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina; Innocence Project Argentina, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Luis Ignacio Brusco
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina; Centro de Neuropsiquiatría y Neurología de la Conducta (CENECON), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Argentina
| | - Jingyi Wang
- DG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research & State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Brain Imaging and Connectomics, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Cecilia Forcato
- Laboratorio de Sueño y Memoria, Departamento de Ciencias de la Vida, Instituto Tecnológico de Buenos Aires (ITBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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9
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Murphy G, Murray E, Gough D. Attitudes towards feminism predict susceptibility to feminism‐related fake news. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/acp.3851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gillian Murphy
- School of Applied Psychology University College Cork Cork Ireland
| | - Emma Murray
- School of Applied Psychology University College Cork Cork Ireland
| | - Doireann Gough
- Department of Psychology University of Groningen Groningen Netherlands
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10
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Greene CM, Murphy G. Individual differences in susceptibility to false memories for COVID-19 fake news. Cogn Res Princ Implic 2020; 5:63. [PMID: 33275199 PMCID: PMC7716111 DOI: 10.1186/s41235-020-00262-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure to 'fake news' can result in false memories, with possible consequences for downstream behaviour. Given the sharp rise in online misinformation during the coronavirus pandemic, it is important to understand the factors that influence the development of false memories. The present study measured susceptibility to false memories following exposure to fabricated news stories about the pandemic in a sample of 3746 participants. We investigated the effect of individual differences in (1) knowledge about COVID-19, (2) engagement with media or discussion about the coronavirus, (3) anxiety about COVID-19 and (4) analytical reasoning. Notably, objectively and subjectively assessed knowledge about COVID-19 were not significantly correlated. Objectively assessed knowledge was associated with fewer false memories but more true memories, suggesting a true discrimination between true and fake news. In contrast, participants who merely believed themselves to be very knowledgeable were more likely to report a memory for true stories, but showed no reduction in false memories. Similarly, individuals who reported high levels of media engagement or anxiety about COVID-19 reported an increase in true (but not false) memories. Finally, higher levels of analytical reasoning were associated with fewer memories for both true and fabricated stories, suggesting a stricter threshold for reporting a memory for any story. These data indicate that false memories can form in response to fake COVID-19 news and that susceptibility to this misinformation is affected by the individual's knowledge about and interaction with COVID-19 information, as well as their tendency to think critically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ciara M Greene
- School of Psychology, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.
| | - Gillian Murphy
- School of Applied Psychology, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
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11
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Coping Strategies, Immediate and Delayed Suggestibility among Children and Adolescents. SOCIAL SCIENCES 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/socsci9110186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Knowing the factors that influence children’s suggestibility is important in implementing the psychological variables to be evaluated during a forensic evaluation. In the interrogative suggestibility model, coping strategies intervene in determining the acceptance or rejection of the leading question. However, studies that investigated the relationship between interrogative suggestibility and coping strategies had mixed results. Avoidance-oriented coping is associated with high level to immediate suggestibility and problem-focused with low levels. In this study, we measured immediate suggestibility, delayed suggestibility, and coping strategies in a sample of 100 children. We hypothesized that avoidance-oriented coping strategies have a predictive effect in increasing immediate suggestibility levels, in particular avoidance-oriented coping oriented towards the tendency to accept leading questions. No effect of coping strategies was expected on delayed suggestibility. All children completed the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale (GSS 2), a non-verbal IQ test, and the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS). Coping strategies were not related to delayed suggestibility, but avoidance-oriented coping correlated positively with immediate suggestibility. Avoidance-oriented coping emerged as the only significant predictive model for shift and total suggestibility, and its subscale distraction emerged as a predictor for Yield 1 and Yield 2. No predictors emerged for delayed suggestibility. Results are discussed for their theoretical implications.
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12
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Toffalini E, Mirandola C, De Simone Irace C, Altoè G. False memory for pictorial scripted material: the role of distinctiveness and negative emotion. Cogn Emot 2020; 34:1489-1498. [PMID: 32248744 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2020.1749034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Emotional content has complex effects on false memory. Under certain circumstances, emotional material may reduce the likelihood of false memory, a phenomenon that some consider related to it being more distinctive than neutral stimuli. In the present study we tested inferential false memory related to emotionally neutral or negative, and distinctive (but not emotionally charged) scripted material. Remember/familiar judgements were required for recognised stimuli. Data were analysed using mixed-effects multinomial regressions and a Bayesian inferential approach. Results obtained with 82 adult participants showed that, compared with neutral material: distinctive material reduced their false memory associated with "remember" and "familiar" judgements, virtually to the same extent; negatively-charged material reduced false memory associated with "remember" judgements but it had no effect on false memory associated with "familiar" judgements. In short, negatively-charged and distinctive material seems to affect false memory in different ways: the latter affects both recollection and familiarity, the former only recollection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Toffalini
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Chiara Mirandola
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | | | - Gianmarco Altoè
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
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13
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Abstract
Decades of research show that people are susceptible to developing false memories. But if they do so in one task, are they likely to do so in a different one? The answer: "No". In the current research, a large number of participants took part in three well-established false memory paradigms (a misinformation task, the Deese-Roediger-McDermott [DRM] list learning paradigm, and an imagination inflation exercise) as well as completed several individual difference measures. Results indicate that many correlations between false memory variables in all three inter-paradigm comparisons are null, though some small, positive, significant correlations emerged. Moreover, very few individual difference variables significantly correlated with false memories, and any significant correlations were rather small. It seems likely, therefore, that there is no false memory "trait". In other words, no one type of person seems especially prone, or especially resilient, to the ubiquity of memory distortion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca M Nichols
- a School of Social Sciences , Nanyang Technological University , Singapore , Singapore
| | - Elizabeth F Loftus
- b Psychology and Social Behavior , University of California , Irvine , CA , USA
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14
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Justice LV, Smith HMJ. Memory judgements: the contribution of detail and emotion to assessments of believability and reliability. Memory 2018; 26:1402-1415. [PMID: 29874959 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2018.1484142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
In legal settings, jury members, police, and legal professionals often have to make judgements about witnesses' or victims' memories of events. Without a scientific understanding of memory, (often erroneous) beliefs are used to make decisions. Evaluation of the literature identified two prevalent beliefs that could influence judgements: (1) memory operates like a video recorder therefore, accounts that are detailed are more believable than those containing vague descriptions, and (2) memories recalled with congruent emotion are more believable than those recalled with incongruent emotion. A 2 (emotionality: emotional, non-emotional) × 2 (detail: high, low) factorial design was generated. In line with previous research, participants made believability judgements (Experiment 1) but uniquely, participants were also asked to judge the reliability of the rememberer's recall (Experiment 2). Self-reported confidence, personality measures, and political orientation were also recorded. Believability judgements did not vary as a function of detail or emotion but detailed accounts were judged as more reliable than vague accounts. Confidence and believability were positively correlated, whereas the confidence-reliability relationship was more complex. Personality and political measures were independent of judgements of both constructs. Our results suggest that believability and reliability are distinct constructs and should be examined as such in future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy V Justice
- a Department of Psychology , Nottingham Trent University , Nottingham , UK
| | - Harriet M J Smith
- a Department of Psychology , Nottingham Trent University , Nottingham , UK
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15
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Harris CB, Barnier AJ, Sutton J, Khan T. Social Contagion of Autobiographical Memories. JOURNAL OF APPLIED RESEARCH IN MEMORY AND COGNITION 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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16
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Kiat JE, Belli RF. An exploratory high-density EEG investigation of the misinformation effect: Attentional and recollective differences between true and false perceptual memories. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2017; 141:199-208. [PMID: 28442391 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2017.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2016] [Revised: 03/25/2017] [Accepted: 04/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The misinformation effect, a phenomenon in which eyewitness memories are altered via exposure to post-event misinformation, is one of the most important paradigms used to investigate the reconstructive nature of human memory. The aim of this study was to use the misinformation effect paradigm to investigate differences in attentional and recollective processing between true and false event memories. Nineteen participants completed a variant of the misinformation paradigm in which recognition responses to true and misinformation based event details embedded within a narrative context, were investigated using high-density (256-channel) EEG with a 1-day delay between event exposure and test. Source monitoring responses were used to isolate event-related-potentials (ERPs) associated with perceptual (i.e. event) source attributions. Temporal-spatial analyses of these ERPs showed evidence of an elevated P3b and Late-Positive Component, associated with stronger context-matching responses and recollective activity respectively, in true perceptual memories relative to false misinformation based ones. These findings represent the first retrieval focused EEG investigation of the misinformation effect and highlight the interplay between attention and retrieval processes in episodic memory recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- John E Kiat
- University of Nebraska-Lincoln, United States.
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17
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Doughty N, Paterson HM, MacCann C, Monds LA. Personality and Memory Conformity. JOURNAL OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2017. [DOI: 10.1027/1614-0001/a000217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Abstract. When an individual’s memory for an event is altered by post-event information (PEI) provided by a co-witness, this is known as memory conformity ( Wright, Self, & Justice, 2000 ). The aim of this study was to investigate whether personality characteristics are associated with memory conformity. Ninety-nine participants viewed a crime film and then completed the Ten-Item Personality Questionnaire (TIPI; Gosling, Rentfrow, & Swann, 2003 ), a measure of extraversion, openness, agreeableness, neuroticism, and conscientiousness. Participants then discussed the film with a co-witness who contributed 12 items of post-event information (6 correct, 6 incorrect). Finally, participants completed a film recall questionnaire individually. Significant correlations between personality and memory conformity were found, with decreased openness, extraversion, and neuroticism related to increased reporting of post-event misinformation, increased agreeableness related to increased reporting of accurate post-event information, and decreased conscientiousness and neuroticism related to increased fabrications. These findings suggest that some individuals may be more susceptible to accepting misinformation and reporting errors than others.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Doughty
- School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Australia
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18
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Abstract
The wide availability of user-provided content in online social media facilitates the aggregation of people around common interests, worldviews, and narratives. However, the World Wide Web (WWW) also allows for the rapid dissemination of unsubstantiated rumors and conspiracy theories that often elicit rapid, large, but naive social responses such as the recent case of Jade Helm 15--where a simple military exercise turned out to be perceived as the beginning of a new civil war in the United States. In this work, we address the determinants governing misinformation spreading through a thorough quantitative analysis. In particular, we focus on how Facebook users consume information related to two distinct narratives: scientific and conspiracy news. We find that, although consumers of scientific and conspiracy stories present similar consumption patterns with respect to content, cascade dynamics differ. Selective exposure to content is the primary driver of content diffusion and generates the formation of homogeneous clusters, i.e., "echo chambers." Indeed, homogeneity appears to be the primary driver for the diffusion of contents and each echo chamber has its own cascade dynamics. Finally, we introduce a data-driven percolation model mimicking rumor spreading and we show that homogeneity and polarization are the main determinants for predicting cascades' size.
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19
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Normative study of theme identifiability: Instructions with and without explanation of the false memory effect. Behav Res Methods 2015; 48:1252-1265. [PMID: 26424441 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-015-0652-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
False-memory illusions have been widely studied using the Deese/Roediger-McDermott paradigm (DRM). In this paradigm, words semantically related to a single nonpresented critical word are studied. In a later memory test, critical words are often falsely recalled and recognized. The present normative study was conducted to measure the theme identifiability of 60 associative word lists in Spanish that include six words (e.g., stove, coat, blanket, scarf, chill, and bonnet) that are simultaneously associated with three critical words (e.g., HEAT, COLD, and WINTER; Beato & Díez, Psicothema, 26, 457-463, 2011). Different levels of backward associative strength were used in the construction of the DRM lists. In addition, we used two types of instructions to obtain theme identifiability. In the without-explanation condition, traditional instructions were used, requesting participants to write the theme list. In the with-explanation condition, the false-memory effect and how the lists were built were explained, and an example of a DRM list and critical words was shown. Participants then had to discover the critical words. The results showed that all lists produced theme identifiability. Moreover, some lists had a higher theme identifiability rate (e.g., 61 % for the critical words LOVE, BOYFRIEND, COUPLE) than others (e.g., 24 % for CITY, PLACE, VILLAGE). After comparing the theme identifiabilities in the different conditions, the results indicated higher theme identifiability when the false-memory effect was explained than without such an explanation. Overall, these new normative data provide a useful tool for those experiments that, for example, aim to analyze the wide differences observed in false memory with DRM lists and the role of theme identifiability.
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Mocanu D, Rossi L, Zhang Q, Karsai M, Quattrociocchi W. Collective attention in the age of (mis)information. COMPUTERS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2015.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Zollo F, Novak PK, Del Vicario M, Bessi A, Mozetič I, Scala A, Caldarelli G, Quattrociocchi W. Emotional Dynamics in the Age of Misinformation. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0138740. [PMID: 26422473 PMCID: PMC4589395 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0138740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2015] [Accepted: 09/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
According to the World Economic Forum, the diffusion of unsubstantiated rumors on online social media is one of the main threats for our society. The disintermediated paradigm of content production and consumption on online social media might foster the formation of homogeneous communities (echo-chambers) around specific worldviews. Such a scenario has been shown to be a vivid environment for the diffusion of false claim. Not rarely, viral phenomena trigger naive (and funny) social responses-e.g., the recent case of Jade Helm 15 where a simple military exercise turned out to be perceived as the beginning of the civil war in the US. In this work, we address the emotional dynamics of collective debates around distinct kinds of information-i.e., science and conspiracy news-and inside and across their respective polarized communities. We find that for both kinds of content the longer the discussion the more the negativity of the sentiment. We show that comments on conspiracy posts tend to be more negative than on science posts. However, the more the engagement of users, the more they tend to negative commenting (both on science and conspiracy). Finally, zooming in at the interaction among polarized communities, we find a general negative pattern. As the number of comments increases-i.e., the discussion becomes longer-the sentiment of the post is more and more negative.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Alessandro Bessi
- IMT Institute for Advanced Studies, Lucca, Italy
- IUSS, Pavia, Italy
| | - Igor Mozetič
- Jožef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia 1000
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Abstract
Social media enabled a direct path from producer to consumer of contents changing the way users get informed, debate, and shape their worldviews. Such a disintermediation might weaken consensus on social relevant issues in favor of rumors, mistrust, or conspiracy thinking-e.g., chem-trails inducing global warming, the link between vaccines and autism, or the New World Order conspiracy. Previous studies pointed out that consumers of conspiracy-like content are likely to aggregate in homophile clusters-i.e., echo-chambers. Along this path we study, by means of a thorough quantitative analysis, how different topics are consumed inside the conspiracy echo-chamber in the Italian Facebook. Through a semi-automatic topic extraction strategy, we show that the most consumed contents semantically refer to four specific categories: environment, diet, health, and geopolitics. We find similar consumption patterns by comparing users activity (likes and comments) on posts belonging to these different semantic categories. Finally, we model users mobility across the distinct topics finding that the more a user is active, the more he is likely to span on all categories. Once inside a conspiracy narrative users tend to embrace the overall corpus.
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Bessi A, Coletto M, Davidescu GA, Scala A, Caldarelli G, Quattrociocchi W. Science vs conspiracy: collective narratives in the age of misinformation. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0118093. [PMID: 25706981 PMCID: PMC4338055 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0118093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2014] [Accepted: 01/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The large availability of user provided contents on online social media facilitates people aggregation around shared beliefs, interests, worldviews and narratives. In spite of the enthusiastic rhetoric about the so called collective intelligence unsubstantiated rumors and conspiracy theories—e.g., chemtrails, reptilians or the Illuminati—are pervasive in online social networks (OSN). In this work we study, on a sample of 1.2 million of individuals, how information related to very distinct narratives—i.e. main stream scientific and conspiracy news—are consumed and shape communities on Facebook. Our results show that polarized communities emerge around distinct types of contents and usual consumers of conspiracy news result to be more focused and self-contained on their specific contents. To test potential biases induced by the continued exposure to unsubstantiated rumors on users’ content selection, we conclude our analysis measuring how users respond to 4,709 troll information—i.e. parodistic and sarcastic imitation of conspiracy theories. We find that 77.92% of likes and 80.86% of comments are from users usually interacting with conspiracy stories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Bessi
- IUSS Institute for Advanced Study, Pavia, Italy
- Laboratory of Computational Social Science, Networks Dept IMT Institute for Advanced Studies Lucca, Italy
| | - Mauro Coletto
- Laboratory of Computational Social Science, Networks Dept IMT Institute for Advanced Studies Lucca, Italy
| | - George Alexandru Davidescu
- Laboratory of Computational Social Science, Networks Dept IMT Institute for Advanced Studies Lucca, Italy
| | - Antonio Scala
- Laboratory of Computational Social Science, Networks Dept IMT Institute for Advanced Studies Lucca, Italy
- ISC-CNR Uos “Sapienza”, Roma, Italy
| | - Guido Caldarelli
- Laboratory of Computational Social Science, Networks Dept IMT Institute for Advanced Studies Lucca, Italy
- ISC-CNR Uos “Sapienza”, Roma, Italy
| | - Walter Quattrociocchi
- Laboratory of Computational Social Science, Networks Dept IMT Institute for Advanced Studies Lucca, Italy
- Laboratory for the Modeling of Biological and Socio-technical Systems, Northeastern University, Boston, USA
- * E-mail:
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Toffalini E, Mirandola C, Drabik MJ, Melinder A, Cornoldi C. Emotional negative events do not protect against false memories in young adults with depressive–anxious personality traits. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2014.02.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Abstract
This research investigated the relationship between false memories induced by two different paradigms (misinformation and Deese-Roediger-McDermott [DRM]). The misinformation effect refers to the phenomenon that a person's recollection of a witnessed event can be altered after exposure to misleading information about the event. DRM false memory represents the intrusion of words that are semantically related but not actually presented in the study session. Subjects (N = 432) completed both misinformation and DRM false memory tests. Results showed a small but significant correlation (r = .12, p = .02) between the misinformation and DRM false memories. Furthermore, using signal detection theory, we found that the discrimination ability index (d') was related to both the misinformation and DRM false memories (r = -.12 and -.13, p = .01), while the response bias was related only to DRM false memory (r = -.46, p < .001). These results suggest that misinformation and DRM false memories generally involve different mechanisms and that their shared mechanism may involve the global discrimination ability.
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Lei X, Chen C, Xue F, He Q, Chen C, Liu Q, Moyzis RK, Xue G, Cao Z, Li J, Li H, Zhu B, Liu Y, Hsu ASC, Li J, Dong Q. Fiber connectivity between the striatum and cortical and subcortical regions is associated with temperaments in Chinese males. Neuroimage 2013; 89:226-34. [PMID: 23618602 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.04.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2013] [Revised: 03/16/2013] [Accepted: 04/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The seven-factor biopsychosocial model of personality distinguished four biologically based temperaments and three psychosocially based characters. Previous studies have suggested that the four temperaments-novelty seeking (NS), reward dependence (RD), harm avoidance (HA), and persistence (P)-have their respective neurobiological correlates, especially in the striatum-connected subcortical and cortical networks. However, few studies have investigated their neurobiological basis in the form of fiber connectivity between brain regions. This study correlated temperaments with fiber connectivity between the striatum and subcortical and cortical hub regions in a sample of 50 Chinese adult males. Generally consistent with our hypotheses, results showed that: (1) NS was positively correlated with fiber connectivity from the medial and lateral orbitofrontal cortex (mOFC, lOFC) and amygdala to the striatum; (2) RD was positively correlated with fiber connectivity from the mOFC, posterior cingulate cortex/retrosplenial cortex (PCC), hippocampus, and amygdala to the striatum; (3) HA was positively linked to fiber connectivity from the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) and PCC to the striatum; and (4) P was positively linked to fiber connectivity from the mOFC to the striatum. These results extended the research on the neurobiological basis of temperaments by identifying their anatomical fiber connectivity correlates within the subcortical-cortical neural networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuemei Lei
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China; Department of Psychology and Social Behavior, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Chuansheng Chen
- Department of Psychology and Social Behavior, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA.
| | - Feng Xue
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Qinghua He
- Institute of Genomics and Bioinformatics, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Chunhui Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Qi Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Robert K Moyzis
- Department of Biological Chemistry, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA; Institute of Genomics and Bioinformatics, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Gui Xue
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China; Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Zhongyu Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Jin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - He Li
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Bi Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Yuyun Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Anna Shan Chun Hsu
- Department of Psychology and Social Behavior, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Jun Li
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Qi Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.
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Lommen MJJ, Engelhard IM, van den Hout MA. Susceptibility to long-term misinformation effect outside of the laboratory. Eur J Psychotraumatol 2013; 4:19864. [PMID: 23671760 PMCID: PMC3644056 DOI: 10.3402/ejpt.v4i0.19864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2012] [Revised: 02/18/2013] [Accepted: 02/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To test the effect of misinformation outside of the laboratory and to explore correlates of the effect, including arousal, cognitive ability, and neuroticism. METHOD About 2 months before deployment to Afghanistan, 249 soldiers enrolled in this study, which was embedded in a larger project. Two months after deployment, participants were interviewed about stressors on deployment and they received subtle misinformation about a fictional event on deployment. Seven months later, they were retested, and completed a questionnaire about events on deployment. RESULTS At 9 months, a total of 26% of participants reported that they had experienced the fictional event, although 7 months earlier they said they had not experienced it. Logistic regression analyses revealed that lower cognitive ability and a combination of high arousal and more stressors on deployment were related to higher susceptibility to the misinformation effect. CONCLUSIONS Results suggest that information provided by another source may be incorporated into related autobiographical memory, particularly for individuals with lower cognitive ability, high arousal at the time of encoding the information and more related experiences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam J J Lommen
- Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Monds LA, Paterson HM, Kemp RI, Bryant RA. Do distress responses to a traumatic film predict susceptibility to the misinformation effect? J Trauma Dissociation 2013; 14:562-75. [PMID: 24060037 DOI: 10.1080/15299732.2013.804475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The misinformation effect is defined as an impairment in memory for past events due to exposure to misleading information (E. F. Loftus, 2005 ). Some people may be more susceptible to the misinformation effect than others, and this may also depend on their response to a distressing event. The purpose of the current study was to investigate several key factors that may contribute to misinformation susceptibility for distressing events, namely posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms such as avoidance, intrusions, and dissociation. Participants watched either a neutral or trauma film, rated their level of distress, and completed measures of trait and state dissociation. When participants returned a week later, misinformation was introduced via an eyewitness statement and free recall was assessed. Findings indicated that dissociation was related to higher distress ratings following the film but was not related to acceptance of misinformation. However, avoidance scores were related to increased recall of misinformation items, and reported experiences of intrusions were related to greater accuracy. These results are discussed in light of the paradoxical negative emotion hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren A Monds
- a School of Psychology , The University of Sydney , Sydney , Australia
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Bottoms BL, Najdowski CJ, Epstein MA, Badanek MJ. Trauma severity and defensive emotion-regulation reactions as predictors of forgetting childhood trauma. J Trauma Dissociation 2012; 13:291-310. [PMID: 22545564 DOI: 10.1080/15299732.2011.641497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Using a retrospective survey, we studied a sample of 1,679 college women to determine whether reports of prior forgetting of childhood sexual abuse, physical abuse, and other traumas could be explained by trauma severity and individual differences in the use of defensive emotion-regulation reactions (i.e., repressive coping, dissociation, and fantasy proneness). Among victims of physical abuse (but not sexual abuse or other types of trauma), those who experienced severe abuse and used defensive reactions were sometimes more likely to report temporary forgetting of abuse but other times less likely to report forgetting. We also found unanticipated main effects of trauma severity on temporary forgetting. Our results provide an understanding of victims' experiences of forgetting by demonstrating the importance of considering unique effects of trauma type, different aspects of trauma severity, and victims' defensive reactions to trauma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bette L Bottoms
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois, Chicago, Illinois 60607-7137, USA.
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Frenda SJ, Nichols RM, Loftus EF. Current Issues and Advances in Misinformation Research. CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2011. [DOI: 10.1177/0963721410396620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Eyewitnesses are often called upon to report information about what they have seen. A wealth of research from the past century has demonstrated, however, that eyewitness memory is malleable and vulnerable to distorting influences, including the effects of misinformation. In this article, we review recent developments in research related to the misinformation effect, including individual differences in susceptibility, neuroimaging approaches, and protective interview procedures that may better elicit accurate event details. We conclude with a section on related false memory research.
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Zhu B, Chen C, Loftus EF, Lin C, He Q, Chen C, Li H, Xue G, Lu Z, Dong Q. Individual differences in false memory from misinformation: cognitive factors. Memory 2010; 18:543-55. [PMID: 20623420 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2010.487051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
This research investigated the cognitive correlates of false memories that are induced by the misinformation paradigm. A large sample of Chinese college students (N=436) participated in a misinformation procedure and also took a battery of cognitive tests. Results revealed sizable and systematic individual differences in false memory arising from exposure to misinformation. False memories were significantly and negatively correlated with measures of intelligence (measured with Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale), perception (Motor-Free Visual Perception Test, Change Blindness, and Tone Discrimination), memory (Wechsler Memory Scales and 2-back Working Memory tasks), and face judgement (Face Recognition and Facial Expression Recognition). These findings suggest that people with relatively low intelligence and poor perceptual abilities might be more susceptible to the misinformation effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bi Zhu
- Beijing Normal University, China
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Stark CEL, Okado Y, Loftus EF. Imaging the reconstruction of true and false memories using sensory reactivation and the misinformation paradigms. Learn Mem 2010; 17:485-8. [PMID: 20861170 DOI: 10.1101/lm.1845710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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