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Apostolou M, Sullman M, Birkás B, Błachnio A, Bushina E, Calvo F, Costello W, Dujlovic T, Hill T, Lajunen TJ, Lisun Y, Manrique-Millones D, Manrique-Pino O, Meskó N, Nechtelberger M, Ohtsubo Y, Ollhoff CK, Przepiórka A, Putz Á, Tagliabue M, Tekeş B, Thomas A, Valentova JV, Varella MAC, Wang Y, Wright P, Font-Mayolas S. Mating Performance and Singlehood Across 14 Nations. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY 2023; 21:14747049221150169. [PMID: 36596274 PMCID: PMC10355298 DOI: 10.1177/14747049221150169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Adult individuals frequently face difficulties in attracting and keeping mates, which is an important driver of singlehood. In the current research, we investigated the mating performance (i.e., how well people do in attracting and retaining intimate partners) and singlehood status in 14 different countries, namely Austria, Brazil, China, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Peru, Poland, Russia, Spain, Turkey, the UK, and Ukraine (N = 7,181). We found that poor mating performance was in high occurrence, with about one in four participants scoring low in this dimension, and more than 57% facing difficulties in starting and/or keeping a relationship. Men and women did not differ in their mating performance scores, but there was a small yet significant effect of age, with older participants indicating higher mating performance. Moreover, nearly 13% of the participants indicated that they were involuntarily single, which accounted for about one-third of the singles in the sample. In addition, more than 15% of the participants indicated that they were voluntarily single, and 10% were between-relationships single. We also found that poor mating performance was associated with an increased likelihood of voluntary, involuntary, and between-relationships singlehood. All types of singlehood were in higher occurrence in younger participants. Although there was some cross-cultural variation, the results were generally consistent across samples.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mark Sullman
- Department of Social Sciences, University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Béla Birkás
- Department of Behavioural Sciences, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Agata Błachnio
- Institute of Psychology, The John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
| | - Ekaterina Bushina
- Center for Sociocultural Research, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia
| | - Fran Calvo
- Department of Pedagogy, Quality of Life Research Institute, Universitat de Girona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - William Costello
- Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, USA
| | | | - Tetiana Hill
- Business School, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Timo Juhani Lajunen
- Department of Psychology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Yanina Lisun
- Department of Journalism and Advertising, Kyiv National University of Trade and Economics, Kyiv, Ukraine
| | | | | | - Norbert Meskó
- Institute of Psychology, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | | | - Yohsuke Ohtsubo
- Department of Social Psychology, Graduate School of Humanities and Sociology, University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Japan
| | - Christian Kenji Ollhoff
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Aneta Przepiórka
- Institute of Psychology, The John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
| | - Ádám Putz
- Institute of Psychology, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | | | - Burcu Tekeş
- Department of Psychology, Başkent University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Andrew Thomas
- College of Human and Health Sciences, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
| | | | | | - Yan Wang
- Department of Psychology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Paula Wright
- Department of Life Sciences, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, UK
| | - Sílvia Font-Mayolas
- Department of Psychology, Quality of Life Research Institute, Universitat de Girona, Girona, Spain
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Apostolou M. What Makes It Difficult to Start an Intimate Relationship: A Taxonomy of the Reasons. EUROPES JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2022; 17:103-116. [PMID: 35136432 PMCID: PMC8768479 DOI: 10.5964/ejop.1852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2018] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Within the context of an evolutionary theoretical framework, the current research attempted to study the reasons that cause difficulties in starting an intimate relationship in the Greek cultural context. In particular, using qualitative research methods (interviews and open-ended questionnaires), Study 1 (N = 205) identified 58 reasons that make it difficult for people to start an intimate relationship. Using an online sample of 1,095 Greek-speaking participants (N = 1,095), Study 2 classified these reasons in 12 factors. More than 80% of the participants indicated that they faced above moderate or severe difficulties in at least one factor, while about 40% faced difficulties in three or more factors. Significant gender and age effects were found across the different factors. Using second order principal components analysis, the 12 factors were classified in three broader domains of difficulties in starting a relationship.
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Albert G, Richardson GB, Arnocky S, Senveli Z, Hodges-Simeon CR. The Development and Psychometric Evaluation of a New Mating Effort Questionnaire. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2021; 50:511-530. [PMID: 32839933 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-020-01799-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2019] [Revised: 07/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/10/2020] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we review the psychometric literature on mating effort and find that extant instruments (1) have not been adequately evaluated in terms of internal structure and measurement invariance, and (2) disproportionately focus on mate retention and intrasexual competition tactics designed to repel competitors, relative to attraction and investment effort. To address these gaps in the literature, we carried out two studies to develop and validate a new Mating Effort Questionnaire (MEQ). In Study 1, we report a pilot study in which participants' responses to an item pool were submitted to exploratory factor analysis. In Study 2, we replicated the structure found in Study 1 using confirmatory factor analysis in an independent sample. A three-factor solution yielded the best fit. The three factors reflected respondents' allocation of energy to attracting high mate value partners when already mated, seeking out romantic partners when single, and investing in their current romantic partner and relationships. Strong partial measurement invariance held across the sexes, implying that observed scores may be used to compare them. We also found evidence of concurrent validity via associations between the MEQ and constructs such as sociosexual orientation, K-factor, mate retention behaviors, and respondents' sexual behavior. These findings suggest that the MEQ is a valid and novel measure of individual differences in mating effort which is well suited to complement existing mating effort measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graham Albert
- Department of Anthropology, Boston University, 232 Bay State Rd., Boston, MA, 02215, USA.
| | | | - Steven Arnocky
- Department of Psychology, Nipissing University, North Bay, ON, Canada
| | - Zeynep Senveli
- Department of Anthropology, Boston University, 232 Bay State Rd., Boston, MA, 02215, USA
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Apostolou M, Wang Y. The Challenges of Keeping an Intimate Relationship: An Evolutionary Examination. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY 2020; 18:1474704920953526. [PMID: 32885673 PMCID: PMC10358406 DOI: 10.1177/1474704920953526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Revised: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Keeping an intimate relationship is challenging, and many people face difficulties in doing so. In the current research, we have attempted to identify these difficulties, within the context of an evolutionary theoretical framework. More specifically, by using a combination of qualitative research methods in a sample of 163 Greek-speaking participants, we identified 78 such difficulties. By employing maximum likelihood analysis on the scores of 1,099 Greek-speaking participants, we classified these difficulties in 12 broader factors. The most important factor was "Fading away enthusiasm," followed by "Long work hours" and "Lack of personal time and space." Almost 70% of the participants indicated that at least one factor, and 41% indicated that three or more factors caused them difficulties. Significant sex effects were found for most factors, indicating that men and women differed in the importance they ascribed to these difficulties. Moreover, significant age, marital status and number of children effects were found for several factors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yan Wang
- Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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Apostolou M, O J, Esposito G. Singles' Reasons for Being Single: Empirical Evidence From an Evolutionary Perspective. Front Psychol 2020; 11:746. [PMID: 32435217 PMCID: PMC7218110 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
A relatively large number of people in Western societies are single; that is, they are not involved in any romantic relationship. In this study, we have attempted to investigate the reasons for singlehood by asking singles themselves. A final sample of 648 American singles (307 of them women) rated 92 possible reasons for singlehood. These reasons were classified into 18 broad factors and four general domains. Among the most important reasons were poor flirting skills, freedom, fear of getting hurt, having different priorities, and being too picky. Significant sex and age effects were found across different factors and domains. More specifically, men were more likely than women to indicate that they were single in order to be free to flirt around, and because they were not into family making; while women were more likely to indicate that they were single in order to avoid getting hurt, and because they have considered themselves not to be desirable as mates. Younger people were more likely to indicate that they were single because they had poor flirting skills, because they did not see themselves as desirable mates, and because they did not like commitment; whereas older people were more likely to indicate that they were single in order to be free to do what they have wanted. Findings were examined and discussed using evolutionary theories relating to mate selection and evolutionary mismatch.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jiaqing O
- Department of Psychology, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth, United Kingdom
| | - Gianluca Esposito
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science, University of Trento, Trento, Italy.,Department of Psychology, School of Social Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore.,Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
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Apostolou M, Wang Y. The Association Between Mating Performance, Marital Status, and the Length of Singlehood: Evidence From Greece and China. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY 2019; 17:1474704919887706. [PMID: 31722550 PMCID: PMC10480974 DOI: 10.1177/1474704919887706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2019] [Accepted: 10/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A considerable proportion of people in postindustrial societies experience difficulties in intimate relationships and spend considerable time being single. In the current research, we attempted to examine mating performance, and occurrence and length of singlehood in a Greek (N = 884) and a Chinese (N = 2,041) sample. We found that, in both samples, about half of the participants experienced difficulties in intimate relationships. In addition, more than half of the participants were single, and nearly one in four participants indicated that they were single because they faced difficulties attracting a partner. Moreover, more than one in five singles in the Greek sample were without a partner for more than 3 years, and almost half of the singles in the Chinese sample had never been in a relationship. Mating performance predicted marital status, with low scorers being more likely to be single because they faced difficulties in attracting a partner than high scorers. Mating performance predicted also the length of singlehood, with low scorers spending more time being single than high scorers. In addition, singles who faced difficulties in attracting partners experienced lengthier spells of singlehood than other categories of singles. Furthermore, there were significantly more participants who preferred to be single and who never had a relationship in the Chinese than in the Greek sample. Overall, in both samples, a considerable proportion of participants experienced low mating performance, which was associated with increased incidence of prolonged spells of singlehood.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yan Wang
- Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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Apostolou M, Papadopoulou I, Christofi M, Vrontis D. Mating Performance: Assessing Flirting Skills, Mate Signal-Detection Ability, and Shyness Effects. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY 2019; 17:1474704919872416. [PMID: 31542947 PMCID: PMC10299795 DOI: 10.1177/1474704919872416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Several people today experience poor mating performance, that is, they face difficulties in starting and/or keeping an intimate relationship. On the basis of an evolutionary theoretical framework, it was hypothesized that poor mating performance would be predicted by poor flirting skills, poor mate signal-detection ability, and high shyness. By employing a sample of 587 Greek-speaking men and women, we found that more than 40% of our participants experienced difficulties in starting and/or keeping an intimate relationship. We also found that poor flirting skills, poor mate signal-detection ability, and high shyness were associated with poor performance in mating, especially with respect to starting an intimate relationship. The effect sizes and the odds ratios indicated that flirting skills had the largest effect on mating performance, followed by the mate signal-detection ability and shyness.
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