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Wolf CJH, Spoelder M, Beurmanjer H, Bulthuis R, Schellekens AFA, Homberg JR. Individual differences in GHB consumption in a new voluntary GHB self-administration model in outbred rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2024; 241:613-625. [PMID: 38334790 PMCID: PMC10884067 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-024-06537-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE The use of the recreational drug gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) has increased over the past decade, concomitantly leading to a higher incidence of GHB use disorder. Evidence-based treatment interventions are hardly available and cognitive effects of long-term GHB use remain elusive. In order to study the development of GUD and the causal effects of chronic GHB consumption, a GHB self-administration model is required. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Long Evans rats had access to GHB in their home cage according to a two-bottle choice procedure for 3 months. Intoxication and withdrawal symptoms were assessed using an automated sensor-based setup for longitudinal behavioral monitoring. Rats were trained in an operant environment according to a fixed ratio (FR) 1, 2, and 4 schedule of reinforcement. Addiction-like behaviors were assessed through progressive ratio-, non-reinforced-, and quinine-adulterated operant tests. In addition, the novel object recognition test and elevated plus maze test were performed before and after GHB self-administration to assess memory performance and anxiety-like behavior, respectively. KEY RESULTS All rats consumed pharmacologically relevant levels of GHB in their home cage, and their intake remained stable over a period of 3 months. No clear withdrawal symptoms were observed following abstinence. Responding under operant conditions was characterized by strong inter-individual differences, where only a subset of rats showed high motivation for GHB, habitual GHB-seeking, and/or continued responding for GHB despite an aversive taste. Male rats showed a reduction in long-term memory performance 3 months after home-cage GHB self-administration. Anxiety-like behavior was not affected by GHB self-administration. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS The GHB self-administration model was able to reflect individual susceptibility for addiction-like behavior. The reduction in long-term memory performance upon GHB self-administration calls for further research into the cognitive effects of chronic GHB use in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Casper J H Wolf
- Donders Institute for Brain, Department of Psychiatry, Radboudumc, Cognition, and Behaviour, Reinier Postlaan 4, 6525 GC, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Radboudumc, 6525 EN, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
- Nijmegen Institute for Scientist-Practitioners in Addiction (NISPA), 6525 HR, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | - Marcia Spoelder
- Department of Primary and Community Care, Radboud University Medical Center, 6500 HB, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Harmen Beurmanjer
- Nijmegen Institute for Scientist-Practitioners in Addiction (NISPA), 6525 HR, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, 6525 GD, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Novadic-Kentron Addiction Care, 5261 LX, Vught, The Netherlands
| | | | - Arnt F A Schellekens
- Donders Institute for Brain, Department of Psychiatry, Radboudumc, Cognition, and Behaviour, Reinier Postlaan 4, 6525 GC, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Nijmegen Institute for Scientist-Practitioners in Addiction (NISPA), 6525 HR, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Judith R Homberg
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Radboudumc, 6525 EN, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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Desai RI, Limoli CL, Stark CEL, Stark SM. Impact of spaceflight stressors on behavior and cognition: A molecular, neurochemical, and neurobiological perspective. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2022; 138:104676. [PMID: 35461987 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2021] [Revised: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The response of the human body to multiple spaceflight stressors is complex, but mounting evidence implicate risks to CNS functionality as significant, able to threaten metrics of mission success and longer-term behavioral and neurocognitive health. Prolonged exposure to microgravity, sleep disruption, social isolation, fluid shifts, and ionizing radiation have been shown to disrupt mechanisms of homeostasis and neurobiological well-being. The overarching goal of this review is to document the existing evidence of how the major spaceflight stressors, including radiation, microgravity, isolation/confinement, and sleep deprivation, alone or in combination alter molecular, neurochemical, neurobiological, and plasma metabolite/lipid signatures that may be linked to operationally-relevant behavioral and cognitive performance. While certain brain region-specific and/or systemic alterations titrated in part with neurobiological outcome, variations across model systems, study design, and the conspicuous absence of targeted studies implementing combinations of spaceflight stressors, confounded the identification of specific signatures having direct relevance to human activities in space. Summaries are provided for formulating new research directives and more predictive readouts of portending change in neurobiological function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajeev I Desai
- Harvard Medical School, McLean Hospital, Behavioral Biology Program, Belmont, MA 02478, USA.
| | - Charles L Limoli
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of California Irvine, Medical Sciences I, B146B, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Craig E L Stark
- Department of Neurobiology of Behavior, University of California Irvine, 1400 Biological Sciences III, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Shauna M Stark
- Department of Neurobiology of Behavior, University of California Irvine, 1400 Biological Sciences III, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
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van Amsterdam J, Brunt TM, Pereira FR, Crunelle CL, van den Brink W. Cognitive Impairment Following Clinical or Recreational Use of Gammahydroxybutyric Acid (GHB): A Systematic Review. Curr Neuropharmacol 2022; 20:809-819. [PMID: 34151766 PMCID: PMC9878963 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x19666210610094352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND GHB (gamma-hydroxybutyric acid; sodium oxybate) is a general anaesthetic that is clinically used for the treatment of narcolepsy, cataplexy, alcohol withdrawal and alcohol relapse prevention. In addition, GHB is recreationally used. Most clinical and recreational users regard GHB as an innocent drug devoid of adverse effects, despite its high dependence potential and possible neurotoxic effects. At high doses, GHB may lead to a comatose state. This paper systematically reviews possible cognitive impairments due to clinical and recreational GHB use. METHODS PubMed and PsychINFO were searched for literature data about the acute and residual cognitive deficits following GHB use. This review is conducted using the PRISMA protocol. RESULTS A total of 43 reports covering human and animal data on GHB-induced cognitive impairments were eligible and reviewed. This systematic review found no indication for cognitive impairments after clinical GHB use. However, it supports the view that moderate GHB use may result in acute short-term cognitive impairments, whereas regular high-dose GHB use and/or multiple GHB-induced comas are probably neurotoxic resulting in long-term residual cognitive impairments. CONCLUSION These results emphasize the need for awareness among clinicians and recreational users to minimize negative health consequences of recreational GHB use, particularly when high doses are used and GHB-induced comas occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan van Amsterdam
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, The Netherlands;,Address correspondence to this author at the Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, The Netherlands; E-mails: ;
| | - Tibor M. Brunt
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Filipa R. Pereira
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Cleo L. Crunelle
- Department of Psychiatry, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel (UZ Brussel), Laarbeeklaan 101, 1090 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Wim van den Brink
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 22660, 1100 DD Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Raposo Pereira F, McMaster MTB, Polderman N, de Vries YDAT, van den Brink W, van Wingen GA. Effect of GHB-use and GHB-induced comas on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex functioning in humans. Neuroimage Clin 2018; 20:923-930. [PMID: 30308378 PMCID: PMC6178194 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2018.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2018] [Revised: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 09/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) is a recreational drug associated with increasing numbers of GHB-dependent patients and emergency attendances often related to GHB-induced comas. Working memory (WM) deficits have been reported in association with GHB use, and animal studies have shown that GHB induces oxidative stress in vulnerable WM-related brain areas such as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). However, the effects of chronic GHB use and multiple GHB-induced comas on WM-related brain function in humans remains unknown. METHODS We recruited 27 GHB users with ≥4 GHB-induced comas (GHB-Coma), 27 GHB users who never experienced GHB-induced coma (GHB-NoComa), and 27 polydrug users who never used GHB (No-GHB). Participants performed an n-back WM task during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to probe DLPFC functioning. RESULTS The GHB-Coma group had lower premorbid IQ (p = .006) than the GHB-NoComa group despite comparable age and education level. There were also group differences in the use of other drugs than GHB. Therefore, all group comparisons were adjusted for IQ and drug use other than GHB. Compared with the GHB-NoComa and the No-GHB groups, the GHB-Coma group showed increased activity in the right DLPFC (pSVC = 0.028) and increased functional connectivity of the right DLPFC with a cluster comprising the left anterior cingulate and medial frontal gyrus (pFWE = 0.003). No significant fMRI differences were observed between the GHB-NoComa and No-GHB groups. Due to technical problems, no behavioural data were collected. DISCUSSION These results suggest that multiple GHB-induced comas, but not GHB-use per se, are associated with alterations in WM-related brain function. Public awareness campaigns are required to minimize the potential adverse effects induced by GHB recreational use, and especially GHB-induced comas, even if no immediate side effects are experienced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filipa Raposo Pereira
- Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Minni T B McMaster
- Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Nikki Polderman
- Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Yvon D A T de Vries
- Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Wim van den Brink
- Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Guido A van Wingen
- Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Pujol CN, Paasche C, Laprevote V, Trojak B, Vidailhet P, Bacon E, Lalanne L. Cognitive effects of labeled addictolytic medications. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2018; 81:306-332. [PMID: 28919445 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2017.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2017] [Revised: 09/11/2017] [Accepted: 09/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Alcohol, tobacco, and illegal drug usage is pervasive throughout the world, and abuse of these substances is a major contributor to the global disease burden. Many pharmacotherapies have been developed over the last 50years to target addictive disorders. While the efficacy of these pharmacotherapies is largely recognized, their cognitive impact is less known. However, all substance abuse disorders are known to promote cognitive disorders like executive dysfunction and memory impairment. These impairments are critical for the maintenance of addictive behaviors and impede cognitive behavioral therapies that are regularly administered in association with pharmacotherapies. It is also unknown if addictolytic medications have an impact on preexisting cognitive disorders, and if this impact is modulated by the indication of prescription, i.e. abstinence, reduction or substitution, or by the specific action of the medication. METHOD We reviewed the cognitive effects of labeled medications for tobacco addiction (varenicline, bupropion, nicotine patch and nicotine gums), alcohol addiction (naltrexone, nalmefene, baclofen, disulfiram, sodium oxybate, acamprosate), and opioid addiction (methadone, buprenorphine) in human studies. Studies were selected following MOOSE guidelines for systematic reviews of observational studies, using the keywords [Cognition] and [Cognitive disorders] and [treatment] for each medication. RESULTS 971 articles were screened and 77 studies met the inclusion criteria and were reported in this review (for alcohol abuse, n=21, for tobacco n=22, for opioid n=34. However, very few comparative clinical trials have explored the chronic effects of addictolytic medications on cognition in addictive behaviors, and there are no clinical trials on the cognitive impact of nalmefene in patients suffering from alcohol use disorders. DISCUSSION Although some medications seem to enhance cognition in patients suffering from cognitive disorders, others could promote cognitive impairments, and our work highlights a lack of literature on this subject. In conclusion, more comparative clinical trials are needed to better understand the cognitive impact of addictolytic medications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camille Noélie Pujol
- Department of Neurosciences, Institute for Functional Genomics, INSERM U-661, CNRS UMR-5203, 34094 Montpellier, France
| | - Cecilia Paasche
- INSERM 1114, Department of Psychiatry and Addictology, University Hospital of Strasbourg, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Vincent Laprevote
- Centre Psychothérapique de Nancy, Laxou, F-54520, France.; EA 7298, INGRES, Université de Lorraine, Vandoeuvre-lès-, Nancy F-54000, France; CHU Nancy, Maison des Addictions, Nancy, F-54000, France.
| | - Benoit Trojak
- Department of Psychiatry and Addictology, University Hospital of Dijon, France; EA 4452, LPPM, University of Burgundy, France.
| | - Pierre Vidailhet
- INSERM 1114, Department of Psychiatry and Addictology, University Hospital of Strasbourg, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), 67000 Strasbourg, France; Department of Psychiatry and Addictology, University Hospital of Strasbourg, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), 67000 Strasbourg, France..
| | - Elisabeth Bacon
- INSERM 1114, Department of Psychiatry and Addictology, University Hospital of Strasbourg, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), 67000 Strasbourg, France.
| | - Laurence Lalanne
- INSERM 1114, Department of Psychiatry and Addictology, University Hospital of Strasbourg, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), 67000 Strasbourg, France; Department of Psychiatry and Addictology, University Hospital of Strasbourg, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), 67000 Strasbourg, France..
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Hodor A, Palchykova S, Gao B, Bassetti CL. Baclofen and gamma-hydroxybutyrate differentially altered behavior, EEG activity and sleep in rats. Neuroscience 2014; 284:18-28. [PMID: 25301745 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.08.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2014] [Revised: 08/17/2014] [Accepted: 08/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Animal and human studies have shown that sleep may have an impact on functional recovery after brain damage. Baclofen (Bac) and gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) have been shown to induce physiological sleep in humans, however, their effects in rodents are unclear. The aim of this study is to characterize sleep and electroencelphalogram (EEG) after Bac and GHB administration in rats. We hypothesized that both drugs would induce physiological sleep. METHODS Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were implanted with EEG/electromyogram (EMG) electrodes for sleep recordings. Bac (10 or 20 mg/kg), GHB (150 or 300 mg/kg) or saline were injected 1 h after light and dark onset to evaluate time of day effect of the drugs. Vigilance states and EEG spectra were quantified. RESULTS Bac and GHB induced a non-physiological state characterized by atypical behavior and an abnormal EEG pattern. After termination of this state, Bac was found to increase the duration of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep (∼90 and 10 min, respectively), reduce sleep fragmentation and affect NREM sleep episode frequency and duration (p<0.05). GHB had no major effect on vigilance states. Bac drastically increased EEG power density in NREM sleep in the frequencies 1.5-6.5 and 9.5-21.5 Hz compared to saline (p<0.05), while GHB enhanced power in the 1-5-Hz frequency band and reduced it in the 7-9-Hz band. Slow-wave activity in NREM sleep was enhanced 1.5-3-fold during the first 1-2 h following termination of the non-physiological state. The magnitude of drug effects was stronger during the dark phase. CONCLUSION While both Bac and GHB induced a non-physiological resting state, only Bac facilitated and consolidated sleep, and promoted EEG delta oscillations thereafter. Hence, Bac can be considered a sleep-promoting drug and its effects on functional recovery after stroke can be evaluated both in humans and rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Hodor
- Center for Experimental Neurology (ZEN), Department of Neurology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, Switzerland.
| | - S Palchykova
- Center for Experimental Neurology (ZEN), Department of Neurology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, Switzerland
| | - B Gao
- Center for Experimental Neurology (ZEN), Department of Neurology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, Switzerland
| | - C L Bassetti
- Center for Experimental Neurology (ZEN), Department of Neurology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, Switzerland
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Plazzi G, Pizza F, Vandi S, Aricò D, Bruni O, Dauvilliers Y, Ferri R. Impact of acute administration of sodium oxybate on nocturnal sleep polysomnography and on multiple sleep latency test in narcolepsy with cataplexy. Sleep Med 2014; 15:1046-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.sleep.2014.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2014] [Revised: 03/27/2014] [Accepted: 04/29/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Brennan R, Van Hout MC. Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate (GHB): A Scoping Review of Pharmacology, Toxicology, Motives for Use, and User Groups. J Psychoactive Drugs 2014; 46:243-51. [DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2014.921746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rebekah Brennan
- Post-graduate student (RB), Coordinator Substance Abuse Research Centre (MCVH), Waterford, Ireland
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Sircar R, Ishiwari K. Systemic Administration of γ-Hydroxybutyric Acid in Adolescent Rat Impairs Contextual Fear Conditioning, But Not Cued Conditioning. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.4303/jdar/235801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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van Amsterdam JGC, Brunt TM, McMaster MTB, Niesink RJM. Possible long-term effects of γ-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) due to neurotoxicity and overdose. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2012; 36:1217-27. [PMID: 22342779 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2011] [Revised: 01/24/2012] [Accepted: 02/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In several countries, including the Netherlands, the use of GHB seems to be rising. GHB is regarded by recreational users as an innocent drug without any side effects. Recently, the number of patients in treatment due to GHB addiction sharply increased. In addition, various studies report incidents following risky GHB use or GHB overdosing. Other sedative drugs, like ketamine and alcohol have been shown to result in unintended neurotoxic harm at the level of memory and cognitive function. As outlined in the present review, GHB and ketamine have a common mode of action, which suggests that GHB may also lead to similar neurotoxicity as ketamine. GHB overdosing, as well as binge drinking (and high ketamine doses), induce profound coma which is probably neurotoxic for the brain especially in the maturing brain of young adults. It is therefore advocated to investigate possible long-term neurotoxic effects in recreational GHB users e.g. by studying the residual effects on cognition and memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan G C van Amsterdam
- National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
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Residual social, memory and oxytocin-related changes in rats following repeated exposure to γ-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) or their combination. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2010; 212:663-74. [PMID: 20730418 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-010-1986-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2010] [Accepted: 08/06/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE There has been little investigation of the possible lasting adverse effects of γ-hydroxybutyrate (GHB). OBJECTIVES This study aims to study whether GHB produces residual adverse effects on memory and social behaviour in rats and lasting changes in brain monoamines and oxytocin-related gene expression. METHODS Rats received daily intraperitoneal injections of GHB (500 mg/kg), methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; 5 mg/kg) or their combination (GHB/MDMA) over ten consecutive days. Locomotor activity and body weight were assessed during the dosing period and withdrawal-related anxiety was assessed 24 h after drug cessation. After a washout of 4 weeks, rats were tested on the emergence, social interaction, and object recognition tasks over a 2-week period. Monoamine levels in cortex and striatum, and hypothalamic oxytocin and oxytocin receptor mRNA, were then assessed. RESULTS MDMA and GHB/MDMA caused modest sensitization of locomotor activity over time, while sedative effects of GHB diminished with repeated exposure. GHB-treated rats showed reduced social interaction 24 h after the final dose, indicating GHB withdrawal-induced anxiety. All drug-treated groups displayed residual deficits in social interaction and object recognition. No changes in monoamine levels were detected 8 weeks post-drug. However, MDMA pre-exposure increased hypothalamic oxytocin mRNA while GHB pre-exposure upregulated oxytocin receptor mRNA. GHB/MDMA pre-exposure caused intermediate changes in both of these measures. CONCLUSIONS GHB treatment caused residual impairments in memory and social behaviour and increases in anxiety, paralleling the lasting adverse effects of MDMA. Both drugs caused lasting neuroadaptations in brain oxytocin systems and this may be related to the long-term social interaction deficiencies caused by both drugs.
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van Nieuwenhuijzen PS, Kashem MA, Matsumoto I, Hunt GE, McGregor IS. A long hangover from party drugs: Residual proteomic changes in the hippocampus of rats 8 weeks after γ-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) or their combination. Neurochem Int 2010; 56:871-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2010.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2010] [Accepted: 03/05/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Carter LP, Griffiths RR, Mintzer MZ. Cognitive, psychomotor, and subjective effects of sodium oxybate and triazolam in healthy volunteers. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2009; 206:141-54. [PMID: 19543883 PMCID: PMC2792587 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-009-1589-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2009] [Accepted: 06/03/2009] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Illicit gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) has received attention as a "date rape drug" that produces robust amnesia; however, there is little experimental evidence in support of GHB's amnestic effects. OBJECTIVES This study compared the cognitive effects of GHB (sodium oxybate) with those of triazolam in healthy volunteers. MATERIALS AND METHODS Doses of sodium oxybate (1.125, 2.25, and 4.5 g/70 kg), triazolam (0.125, 0.25, and 0.5 mg/70 kg), and placebo were administered to 15 volunteers under repeated measures, counterbalanced, double-blind, double-dummy conditions. The time course and peak physiological, psychomotor, subjective, and cognitive effects were examined. RESULTS Sodium oxybate and triazolam produced similar increases in participant ratings of drug effects. Performance on psychomotor, working memory, and episodic memory tasks was impaired to a greater extent after triazolam than sodium oxybate. CONCLUSIONS Together, these data suggest that sodium oxybate produces less psychomotor and cognitive impairment than triazolam at doses that produce equivalent participant-rated subjective effects in healthy volunteers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lawrence P. Carter
- Department of Psychiatry, Center for Addiction Research, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, 4301 W. Markham Street #843, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA
| | - Roland R. Griffiths
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Miriam Z. Mintzer
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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Gamma-butyrolactone (GBL) disruption of passive avoidance learning in the day-old chick appears to be due to its effect on GABAB not gamma-hydroxybutyric [corrected] acid (GHB) receptors. Behav Brain Res 2009; 197:347-55. [PMID: 18948143 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2008.09.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2008] [Revised: 09/17/2008] [Accepted: 09/23/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Gamma-butyrolactone (GBL) is a prodrug to gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) and metabolises to GHB when ingested. Discrimination stimulus studies report generalisation of effects of GHB to GBL. While amnesia is one of the most commonly reported symptoms of GHB's ingestion in human users, as yet few studies have examined this effect. Although an endogenous GHB specific receptor is present in the brain, several studies have indicated that the clinical effects of exogenous doses of GBL/GHB are due to its action on GABA(B) receptors rather than on the GHB receptor. In this series of studies, New Hampshire x White leghorn cockerels were trained using a modified version of the passive avoidance learning task. Subcutaneous injections of GBL induced a memory deficit by 10 min post-training, which persisted for at least 24 h. No effect on memory was seen with administration of the specific GHB agonist NCS-356 (gamma-p-chlorophenyl-trans-4-hydroxycrotonate). The GBL-induced memory deficit appeared similar to the deficit produced by baclofen, where the antagonist facilitated learning. Additionally, GBL-induced memory deficit was ameliorated by application of a GABA(B) antagonist. The results support the hypothesis that GBL exerts its influence on memory via the GABA(B) receptor rather than by the specific GHB receptor.
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