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Farmer AL, Lewis MH. Reduction of restricted repetitive behavior by environmental enrichment: Potential neurobiological mechanisms. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2023; 152:105291. [PMID: 37353046 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2023] [Revised: 06/04/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/25/2023]
Abstract
Restricted repetitive behaviors (RRB) are one of two diagnostic criteria for autism spectrum disorder and common in other neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders. The term restricted repetitive behavior refers to a wide variety of inflexible patterns of behavior including stereotypy, self-injury, restricted interests, insistence on sameness, and ritualistic and compulsive behavior. However, despite their prevalence in clinical populations, their underlying causes remain poorly understood hampering the development of effective treatments. Intriguingly, numerous animal studies have demonstrated that these behaviors are reduced by rearing in enriched environments (EE). Understanding the processes responsible for the attenuation of repetitive behaviors by EE should offer insights into potential therapeutic approaches, as well as shed light on the underlying neurobiology of repetitive behaviors. This review summarizes the current knowledge of the relationship between EE and RRB and discusses potential mechanisms for EE's attenuation of RRB based on the broader EE literature. Existing gaps in the literature and future directions are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna L Farmer
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
| | - Mark H Lewis
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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2
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Rodefer JS, Maitland SC. Adolescent nicotine administration impacts working memory and reversal learning but not cognitive flexibility. Dev Psychobiol 2022; 64:e22343. [PMID: 36426795 DOI: 10.1002/dev.22343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
There has been increased interest in early exposure to nicotine through tobacco products and vaping specifically as it relates to addiction, yet fewer studies have focused on whether behavioral effects resulting from early nicotine exposure may persist into adulthood. Our experiments tested the hypothesis that exposure to nicotine during adolescence would impair selective aspects of behavioral cognition in rodents in adulthood. Male and female adolescent rats received either nicotine (0.4 mg/kg) or vehicle injections (intraperitoneal) once daily for 10 days (PND 29-38) followed by a washout period before behavioral testing. Animals were followed in a longitudinal design and evaluated on a battery of both behavioral and cognitive tasks during adulthood (PND 90+) that included locomotor activity, working memory (novel object recognition), cognitive flexibility (attentional set-shifting task, ASST), and anxiety-like behaviors. Data suggested that subchronic exposure to nicotine during adolescence produced significant changes in working memory, in two reversal problems in the ASST, and in anxiety-related behaviors. Taken together these data may suggest that limited early exposure to nicotine may produce selective longer term impairments in cognitive and behavioral processes related to working memory and reversal learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua S Rodefer
- Department of Psychology, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, USA.,Program of Neuroscience, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, USA
| | - Sarah C Maitland
- Department of Psychology, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, USA
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Corredor K, Duran J, Herrera-Isaza L, Forero S, Quintanilla J, Gomez A, Martínez GS, Cardenas FP. Behavioral effects of environmental enrichment on male and female wistar rats with early life stress experiences. Front Physiol 2022; 13:837661. [PMID: 36225294 PMCID: PMC9548697 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.837661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure to adverse childhood experiences or early life stress experiences (ELSs) increase the risk of non-adaptive behaviors and psychopathology in adulthood. Environmental enrichment (EE) has been proposed to minimize these effects. The vast number of methodological variations in animal studies underscores the lack of systematicity in the studies and the need for a detailed understanding of how enrichment interacts with other variables. Here we evaluate the effects of environmental enrichment in male and female Wistar rats exposed to adverse early life experiences (prenatal, postnatal, and combined) on emotional (elevated plus maze), social (social interaction chamber), memory (Morris water maze) and flexibility tasks. Our results—collected from PND 51 to 64—confirmed: 1) the positive effect of environmental enrichment (PND 28–49) on anxiety-like behaviors in animals submitted to ELSs. These effects depended on type of experience and type of enrichment: foraging enrichment reduced anxiety-like behaviors in animals with prenatal and postnatal stress but increased them in animals without ELSs. This effect was sex-dependent: females showed lower anxiety compared to males. Our data also indicated that females exposed to prenatal and postnatal stress had lower anxious responses than males in the same conditions; 2) no differences were found for social interactions; 3) concerning memory, there was a significant interaction between the three factors: A significant interaction for males with prenatal stress was observed for foraging enrichment, while physical enrichment was positive for males with postnatal stress; d) regarding cognitive flexibility, a positive effect of EE was found in animals exposed to adverse ELSs: animals with combined stress and exposed to physical enrichment showed a higher index of cognitive flexibility than those not exposed to enrichment. Yet, within animals with no EE, those exposed to combined stress showed lower flexibility than those exposed to both prenatal stress and no stress. On the other hand, animals with prenatal stress and exposed to foraging-type enrichment showed lower cognitive flexibility than those with no EE. The prenatal stress-inducing conditions used here 5) did not induced fetal or maternal problems and 6) did not induced changes in the volume of the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. Corredor
- Laboratory of Neuroscience and Behavior, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia
- Centro de Investigación en Biomodelos, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - J.M. Duran
- Laboratory of Neuroscience and Behavior, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - L. Herrera-Isaza
- Laboratory of Neuroscience and Behavior, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - S. Forero
- Laboratory of Neuroscience and Behavior, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - J.P. Quintanilla
- Laboratory of Neuroscience and Behavior, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - A. Gomez
- Laboratory of Neuroscience and Behavior, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia
| | | | - F. P. Cardenas
- Laboratory of Neuroscience and Behavior, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia
- *Correspondence: F. P. Cardenas,
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Minchew HM, Radabaugh HL, LaPorte ML, Free KE, Cheng JP, Bondi CO. A combined therapeutic regimen of citalopram and environmental enrichment ameliorates attentional set-shifting performance after brain trauma. Eur J Pharmacol 2021; 904:174174. [PMID: 34004206 PMCID: PMC8906929 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2021.174174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Traumatic brain injuries (TBI) have led to lasting deficits for an estimated 5.3 million American patients. Effective therapies for these patients remain scarce and each of the clinical trials stemming from success in experimental models has failed. We believe that the failures may be, in part, due to the lack of preclinical assessment of cognitive domains that widely affect clinical TBI. Specifically, the behavioral tasks in the TBI literature often do not focus on common executive impairments related to the frontal lobe such as cognitive flexibility. In previous work, we have demonstrated that the attentional set-shifting test (AST), a task analogous to the clinically-employed Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), could be used to identify cognitive flexibility impairments following controlled cortical impact (CCI) injury. In this study, we hypothesized that both the administration of the antidepressant drug citalopram (CIT) and exposure to a preclinical model of neurorehabilitation, environmental enrichment (EE), would attenuate cognitive performance deficits on AST when provided alone and lead to greater benefits when administered in combination. Adult male rats were subjected to a moderate-severe CCI or sham injury. Rats were randomly divided into experimental groups that included surgical injury, drug therapy, and housing condition. We observed that both CIT and EE provided significant cognitive recovery when administered alone and reversal learning performance recovery increased the most when the therapies were combined (p < 0.05). Ongoing studies continue to evaluate novel ways of assessing more clinically relevant measurements of high order cognitive TBI-related impairments in the rat model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather M Minchew
- Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA; Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Hannah L Radabaugh
- Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA; Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Megan L LaPorte
- Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA; Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Kristin E Free
- Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA; Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Jeffrey P Cheng
- Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA; Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Corina O Bondi
- Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA; Safar Center for Resuscitation Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA; Neurobiology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA; Center for Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA.
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Gelfo F. Does Experience Enhance Cognitive Flexibility? An Overview of the Evidence Provided by the Environmental Enrichment Studies. Front Behav Neurosci 2019; 13:150. [PMID: 31338030 PMCID: PMC6629767 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroplasticity accounts for the ability of the brain to change in both structure and function in consequence of life experiences. An enhanced stimulation provided by the environment is able to create a form of brain, neural, and cognitive reserve, which allows an individual to cope better with the environmental demands, also in case of neural damage leading to cognitive decline. With its complex manipulation of several stimuli, the animal experimental paradigm of environmental enrichment (EE) appears particularly effective in modulating the ability to successfully respond to the ever-changing characteristics of the environment. According to this point, it could be very relevant to analyze the specific effects of EE on cognitive flexibility (CF). CF could be defined as the ability to effectively change behavior in response to the environmental condition changing. This review article is specifically aimed to summarize and focus on the available evidence in relation to the effects of EE on CF. To this aim, findings obtained in behavioral tasks specifically structured to investigate animal CF, such as reversal learning and attentional set-shifting tests (tasks based on the request of responding to a rewarding rule that changes, within one or multiple perceptual dimensions), are reviewed. Data provided on the structural and biochemical correlates of these findings are also enumerated. Studies realized in healthy animals and also in pathological models are considered. On the whole, the summarized evidence clearly supports the specific beneficial effects of EE on CF. However, further studies on this key topic are strictly required to gain a comprehensive and detailed framework on the mechanisms by which an enhanced stimulation could improve CF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Gelfo
- Department of Human Sciences, Guglielmo Marconi University, Rome, Italy.,Department of Clinical and Behavioural Neurology, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
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Estrada C, Cuenca L, Cano-Fernandez L, Gil-Martinez AL, Sanchez-Rodrigo C, González-Cuello AM, Fernandez-Villalba E, Herrero MT. Voluntary exercise reduces plasma cortisol levels and improves transitory memory impairment in young and aged Octodon degus. Behav Brain Res 2019; 373:112066. [PMID: 31269420 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.112066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2019] [Revised: 06/28/2019] [Accepted: 06/28/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Sleep deprivation (SD) has been reported to induce transient cognitive impairment in functional domains commonly affected in dementia, including memory. Indeed, sleep disturbance has been proposed as an early marker for Alzheimer's disease (AD). SD emulates many aging-related modifications, including important memory dysfunctions possibly caused by triggers of stress such as cortisol. Although exercise is widely assumed to be beneficial for overall health, only recently has the research community focused its attention on its possible effects on brain functions such as cognition. Octodon degus (O. degus) is a recent rodent model considered suitable for the study of neurodegenerative diseases, since it spontaneously develops several histopathological hallmarks observed in AD. We aimed to uncover the interaction between stress, exercise, age and transient memory impairments after SD insult. In this study, animals had free individual access to wheels to practice voluntary exercise. The Barnes Maze (BM) task was conducted with young and aged O. degus animals after combining voluntary exercise and either normal sleep or SD. Plasma cortisol levels were measured after each condition. SD impaired hippocampus-dependent memory in both young and old animals, while cortisol levels did not significantly differ between non-SD and SD animals. However, voluntary exercise for 45 days improved the cognitive impairment caused by SD compared with the control condition. Moreover, voluntary exercise decreased plasma cortisol levels in both conditions, independently of the age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Estrada
- Clinical & Experimental Neuroscience, Department of Human Anatomy & Psychobiology, Institute for Biomedical Research of Murcia (IMIB), School of Medicine, Campus Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia, Murcia, 30100, Spain; Institute for Aging Research, School of Medicine, Campus Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia, Murcia, 30100, Spain
| | - Lorena Cuenca
- Clinical & Experimental Neuroscience, Department of Human Anatomy & Psychobiology, Institute for Biomedical Research of Murcia (IMIB), School of Medicine, Campus Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia, Murcia, 30100, Spain; Institute for Aging Research, School of Medicine, Campus Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia, Murcia, 30100, Spain
| | - Lorena Cano-Fernandez
- Clinical & Experimental Neuroscience, Department of Human Anatomy & Psychobiology, Institute for Biomedical Research of Murcia (IMIB), School of Medicine, Campus Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia, Murcia, 30100, Spain; Institute for Aging Research, School of Medicine, Campus Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia, Murcia, 30100, Spain
| | - Ana Luisa Gil-Martinez
- Clinical & Experimental Neuroscience, Department of Human Anatomy & Psychobiology, Institute for Biomedical Research of Murcia (IMIB), School of Medicine, Campus Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia, Murcia, 30100, Spain; Institute for Aging Research, School of Medicine, Campus Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia, Murcia, 30100, Spain
| | - Consuelo Sanchez-Rodrigo
- Clinical & Experimental Neuroscience, Department of Human Anatomy & Psychobiology, Institute for Biomedical Research of Murcia (IMIB), School of Medicine, Campus Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia, Murcia, 30100, Spain; Institute for Aging Research, School of Medicine, Campus Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia, Murcia, 30100, Spain
| | - Ana Maria González-Cuello
- Clinical & Experimental Neuroscience, Department of Human Anatomy & Psychobiology, Institute for Biomedical Research of Murcia (IMIB), School of Medicine, Campus Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia, Murcia, 30100, Spain; Institute for Aging Research, School of Medicine, Campus Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia, Murcia, 30100, Spain
| | - Emiliano Fernandez-Villalba
- Clinical & Experimental Neuroscience, Department of Human Anatomy & Psychobiology, Institute for Biomedical Research of Murcia (IMIB), School of Medicine, Campus Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia, Murcia, 30100, Spain; Institute for Aging Research, School of Medicine, Campus Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia, Murcia, 30100, Spain
| | - Maria Trinidad Herrero
- Clinical & Experimental Neuroscience, Department of Human Anatomy & Psychobiology, Institute for Biomedical Research of Murcia (IMIB), School of Medicine, Campus Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia, Murcia, 30100, Spain; Institute for Aging Research, School of Medicine, Campus Mare Nostrum, University of Murcia, Murcia, 30100, Spain.
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Cope ZA, Powell SB, Young JW. Modeling neurodevelopmental cognitive deficits in tasks with cross-species translational validity. GENES BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR 2016; 15:27-44. [PMID: 26667374 DOI: 10.1111/gbb.12268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2015] [Revised: 10/14/2015] [Accepted: 10/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Numerous psychiatric disorders whose cognitive dysfunction links to functional outcome have neurodevelopmental origins including schizophrenia, autism and bipolar disorder. Treatments are needed for these cognitive deficits, which require development using animal models. Models of neurodevelopmental disorders are as varied and diverse as the disorders themselves, recreating some but not all aspects of the disorder. This variety may in part underlie why purported procognitive treatments translated from these models have failed to restore functioning in the targeted patient populations. Further complications arise from environmental factors used in these models that can contribute to numerous disorders, perhaps only impacting specific domains, while diagnostic boundaries define individual disorders, limiting translational efficacy. The Research Domain Criteria project seeks to 'develop new ways to classify mental disorders based on behavioral dimensions and neurobiological measures' in hopes of facilitating translational research by remaining agnostic toward diagnostic borders derived from clinical presentation in humans. Models could therefore recreate biosignatures of cognitive dysfunction irrespective of disease state. This review highlights work within the field of neurodevelopmental models of psychiatric disorders tested in cross-species translational cognitive paradigms that directly inform this newly developing research strategy. By expounding on this approach, the hopes are that a fuller understanding of each model may be attainable in terms of the cognitive profile elicited by each manipulation. Hence, conclusions may begin to be drawn on the nature of cognitive neuropathology on neurodevelopmental and other disorders, increasing the chances of procognitive treatment development for individuals affected in specific cognitive domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z A Cope
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla
| | - S B Powell
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla.,Research Service, VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - J W Young
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla.,Research Service, VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, USA
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Housing condition-related changes involved in reversal learning and its c-Fos associated activity in the prefrontal cortex. Neuroscience 2015; 307:14-25. [PMID: 26314630 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.08.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2015] [Revised: 07/31/2015] [Accepted: 08/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Our study examined how different housing conditions modulated the acquisition of a spatial reference memory task and also, a reversal task in the 4-radial arm water maze (4-RAWM). The animals were randomly assigned to standard or enriched cages, and, as a type of complementary stimulation along with the environmental enrichment (EE), a group of rats also ran 15 min/day in a Rotarod. Elevated-zero maze results allowed us to discard that our exercise training increased anxiety-related behaviors. 4-RAWM results revealed that the non-enriched group had a worse performance during the acquisition and also, during the first trial of each session with respect to the enriched groups. Regarding the reversal task, this group made more perseverative errors in the previous platform position. Interestingly, we hardly found differences between the two enriched groups (with and without exercise). We also analyzed how the reversal learning, depending on the previous housing condition, modulated the expression of c-Fos-positive nuclei in different subdivisions of the medial prefrontal cortex (cingulate (Cg), prelimbic (PL) and infralimbic (IL) cortices) and in the orbitofrontal (OF) cortex. The enriched groups had higher c-Fos expression in the Cg and OF cortices and lower in the IL cortex respect to the non-enriched animals. In the PL cortex, we did not find significant differences between the groups that performed the reversal task. Therefore, our short EE protocol improved the performance in a spatial memory and a reversal task, whereas the exercise training, combined with the EE, did not produce a greater benefit. This better performance seemed to be related with the specific pattern of c-Fos expression in brain regions involved in cognitive flexibility.
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Zhang L, Zhang J, Sun H, Zhu H, Liu H, Yang Y. An enriched environment elevates corticosteroid receptor levels in the hippocampus and restores cognitive function in a rat model of chronic cerebral hypoperfusion. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2013; 103:693-700. [PMID: 23290935 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2012.12.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2011] [Revised: 11/16/2012] [Accepted: 12/22/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
An enriched environment (EE) is beneficial for modifying certain behaviors, particularly those involving complex cognitive functions. In models of chronic cerebral hypoperfusion (CCH), the ability of an EE to restore cognition depends on hippocampal synaptic plasticity and brain-derived neurotrophic factor. The mechanisms for this effect have not, however, been adequately studied. Here we investigated the effects of CCH and an EE on serum corticosteroid concentrations and the levels of the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) in the hippocampus. Rats were randomly divided into four treatment groups that received either permanent bilateral ligation of the common carotid arteries or sham surgery. Following this procedure, rats were exposed to 4 weeks of either an EE or standard housing. After the environmental intervention, their spatial learning and memory abilities were examined using the Morris water maze. In addition, the levels of MR and GR proteins in the hippocampus were determined. CCH impaired spatial cognitive function in rats, and exposure to an EE diminished these spatial learning and memory deficits. CCH also reduced the levels of MR and GR proteins in the hippocampus, but an EE restored the levels. Our results demonstrate that EE exposure restores cognitive impairments induced by CCH and up-regulates MR and GR expression. As such, MR and GR may contribute to the diminished effects of an EE in rats with CCH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Zhang
- Department of Neurology and Neuropsychological Research Center, Zhongnan Hospital, Wuhan University, Donghu Road 169#, Wuhan 430071, Hubei, China
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