Safe and healthy school environments

Ergonomic evaluation of school furniture in Slovenia: From primary school to university

BACKGROUND:

Adequate school furniture is important to prevent musculoskeletal discomfort among students.

OBJECTIVE:

The aim of the study was to assess the suitability of school furniture compared to body dimensions of students.

METHODS:

A cross-sectional study included a total of 442 students from primary school, secondary school, and university. Nine body dimensions along with five furniture dimensions were measured and equations for mismatch criteria were applied.

RESULTS:

In primary school, differences in body dimensions were more evident among students of different age, while in secondary school and university, differences between male and female students became more apparent. The mismatch for desk height ranged from 100.0% at primary school to 48.0% at university. Similarly, the seat height mismatch was the most evident in primary school (89.7% –94.6%), lower at university (52.0%) and the lowest in secondary school (18.0%). The seat depth mismatch was present among all groups, ranging from 23.1% to 40.4%, and was in general more pronounced in males. Seat to desk clearance mismatch was the most evident among secondary school students. In primary school, seat and desk height were generally too high for most of students.

CONCLUSIONS:

Specific differences in body dimensions among groups of students of different age and gender were observed and a high student-furniture mismatch was identified in all educational institutions. Implementation of adjustable school furniture, covering at least two size marks, is needed to provide ergonomic and healthy learning conditions and to further enhance the comfort and well-being of students in the classroom.

The Safety of Schools Based on Heavy Metal Concentrations in Classrooms' Dust: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background:

Classroom is where children spend much of their time in; this study aimed to identify the concentration of heavy metals in the classroom dust based on the results of various studies in the world using the published data up to years 2018.

Methods:

Fifteen studies were selected for the study according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The mean concentration of 11 heavy metals including arsenic, barium, cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, nickel, and zinc was extracted.

Results:

The highest mean concentration of heavy metal (mg/kg) in classroom dust was related to iron (3904.7, 95%CI: 3657.1–8154.3), zinc (429.9, 95%CI: 182.8–677.1) and barium (419.2, 95%CI: 274.7–253.7), respectively. Subgroup analysis showed the maximum concentration (mg/kg) of iron in Iran (16945.5), zinc in Hong Kong (2293.5), barium in China (979.8), manganese in Iran (288.9), lead in Iran (258.8), chromium in Ghana (381.3), copper in Hong Kong (274.4), nickel in Iran (50.1), cobalt in China(43.4), arsenic in China(13.7) and cadmium in Hong Kong(8.7).

Conclusion:

Even safe and healthy classrooms can threaten children’s health by heavy metals. These metals are important since they are naturally found throughout the earth’s crust, accumulate in the food chain and contaminate drinking water as well as alloys in school equipment.

Musculoskeletal problems and backpack carriage among students in Nigeria

BACKGROUND

The health implication of backpack carriage among school-aged children is a topic of growing research and public health interest. Low weighing backpacks may decrease the risk of musculoskeletal discomforts (MSDs).

OBJECTIVE

To investigate MSDs and their association with backpack carriage practices among secondary school students in eastern Nigeria.

METHOD

Across-sectional study of 404 (243 females and 161 males) secondary school students aged thirteen to seventeen who were residents of Enugu State, Nigeria was conducted. The Modified Standard Nordic Musculoskeletal Questionnaire was adapted and used to collect information onstudents' demographics, musculoskeletal painand backpack carriage. Descriptive statistics (frequencies and percentages) were utilized to summarize results. Chi-square test was used to explore the association between MSD prevalence and backpack carriage practices. Data were analysed using SPSS version 20.0. Alpha level was kept at 0.05.

RESULTS

The average backpack weight carried by the students in this study was 2.49 kg. Shoulder (185, 45.8%), neck (121, 30.0%), upper back (91, 22.6%) and lower back (22, 5.5%) in that order were the body regions most affected by MSDs within the last 12 months. More females than males reported MSDs (60.5% vs 45.2%; x2 = 8.09, p = 0.04). Other students'characteristics and backpack carriage related factors were not associated with MSDs.

CONCLUSION

There is a high prevalence of MSDs among secondary school students in this study but it is not related to backpack carriage. Further research is required to identify the factors responsible for the MSDs, as well as suitable interventions to reduce its impact in this population.

Parental awareness of schoolbag carriage: A comparative study of Irish and United States parents

BACKGROUND

Given the global nature of schoolbag carriage, there has been extensive research on schoolbag weight and use with resultant guidance on many aspects of carrying a schoolbag. However, there is limited evidence of knowledge translation or parents' awareness of schoolbag carriage.

OBJECTIVE

This study investigated parental awareness of factors related to schoolbag carriage.

METHOD

A cross-sectional survey using an anonymous 30-item questionnaire and purposive sampling was used. Questionnaires were distributed to parents of primary school children through the schools. Descriptive statistics of frequencies and percentages were used and associations were tested using Chi-square analysis in SPSS v23.

RESULTS

A total of 700 parents in Ireland (Ire) and the United States (US) participated in the study (n = 444 [Ire] and n = 256 [US]). Generally, parents had satisfactory awareness of appropriate schoolbag type and carriage. The majority of children owned a backpack (89.9% [Ire] vs. 93.7% [US]), although fewer parents considered this to be the most suitable bag for their child (69.6% [Ire] vs. 88.2% [US]). More Irish parents (29.2%) favoured a wheeled schoolbag compared to US parents (6.2%) (p < 0.001). The majority (70.8% [Ire] vs. 55.7% [US]) wanted more information. The preferred platforms for receiving information were a handout (78.1% [Ire] vs. 71.6% [US]) and on-line (44.6% [Ire] vs. 53.9% [US]).

CONCLUSIONS

Despite gaps identified, parents had good awareness of factors relating to schoolbag carriage, but this study shows that they would like more information. The preferred platform for knowledge translation was a handout. Parents are the best advocates for safety promotion and represent the group most likely to improve schoolbag carriage among children.

Emergency department visits resulting from intentional injury in and out of school

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Previous studies have reported concerning numbers of injuries to children in the school setting. The objective was to understand temporal and demographic trends in intentional injuries in the school setting and to compare these with intentional injuries outside the school setting.

METHODS

Data from the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System-All Injury Program from 2001 to 2008 were analyzed to assess emergency department visits (EDVs) after an intentional injury.

RESULTS

There were an estimated 7,397,301 total EDVs due to injuries sustained at school from 2001 to 2008. Of these, an estimated 736,014 (10%) were reported as intentional (range: 8.5%-10.7% for the study time period). The overall risk of an EDV after an intentional injury in school was 2.33 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.93-2.82) when compared with an EDV after an intentional injury outside the school setting. For intentional injury-related EDVs originating in the school setting, multivariate regression identified several demographic risk factors: 10- to 14-year-old (odds ratio [OR]: 1.58; 95% CI: 1.10-2.27) and 15- to 19-year-old (OR: 1.69; 95% CI: 1.01-2.82) age group, black (OR: 4.14; 95% CI: 2.94-5.83) and American Indian (OR: 2.48; 95% CI: 2.06-2.99) race, and Hispanic ethnicity (OR: 3.67; 95% CI: 2.02-6.69). The odds of hospitalization resulting from intentional injury-related EDV compared with unintentional injury-related EDVs was 2.01 (95% CI: 1.50-2.69) in the school setting. These odds were found to be 5.85 (95% CI: 4.76-7.19) in the outside school setting.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this study suggest a need for additional prevention strategies addressing school-based intentional injuries.

Poor air quality in classrooms related to asthma and rhinitis in primary schoolchildren of the French 6 Cities Study

Background

Relationships between indoor air quality (IAQ) found in schools and the allergic and respiratory health of schoolchildren have been insufficiently explored. A survey was conducted in a large sample of classrooms of primary schools in France to provide objective assessments of IAQ to which young schoolchildren are exposed in classrooms, and to relate exposure to major air pollutants found in classrooms to asthma and allergies of schoolchildren.

Methods

Concentrations of fine particles with aerodynamic diameter ≤2.5 μm (PM_2.5), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and three aldehydes were objectively assessed in 401 randomly chosen classrooms in 108 primary schools attended by 6590 children (mean age 10.4 years, SD ±0.7) in the French 6 Cities Study. The survey incorporated a medical visit including skin prick testing (SPT) for common allergens, a test for screening exercise-induced asthma (EIA) and a standardised health questionnaire completed by parents.

Results

Children were differently exposed to poor air quality in classrooms, with almost 30% being highly exposed according to available standards. After adjusting for confounders, past year rhinoconjunctivitis was significantly associated with high levels of formaldehyde in classrooms (OR 1.19; 95% CI 1.04 to 1.36). Additionally, an increased prevalence of past year asthma was found in the classrooms with high levels of PM_2.5 (OR 1.21; 95% CI 1.05 to 1.39), acrolein (OR 1.22; 95% CI 1.09 to 1.38) and NO₂ (OR 1.16; 95% CI 0.95 to 1.41) compared with others. The relationship was observed mostly for allergic asthma as defined using SPT. A significant positive correlation was found between EIA and the levels of PM_2.5 and acrolein in the same week.

Conclusions

In this random sample, air quality in classrooms was poor, varied significantly among schools and cities, and was related to an increased prevalence of clinical manifestations of asthma and rhinitis in schoolchildren. Children with a background of allergies seemed at increased risk.

Indoor environment and children's health: recent developments in chemical, biological, physical and social aspects

Much research is being carried out into indoor exposure to harmful agents. This review focused on the impact on children's health, taking a broad approach to the indoor environment and including chemical, microbial, physical and social aspects. Papers published from 2006 onwards were reviewed, with regards to scientific context. Most of publications dealt with chemical exposure. Apart from the ongoing issue of combustion by-products, most of these papers concerned semi volatile organic compounds (such as phthalates). These may be associated with neurotoxic, reprotoxic or respiratory effects and may, therefore, be of particular interest so far as children are concerned. In a lesser extent, volatile organic compounds (such as aldehydes) that have mainly respiratory effects are still studied. Assessing exposure to metals is still of concern, with increasing interest in bioaccessibility. Most of the papers on microbial exposure focused on respiratory tract infections, especially asthma linked to allergens and bio-aerosols. Physical exposure includes noise and electromagnetic fields, and articles dealt with the auditory and non auditory effects of noise. Articles on radiofrequency electromagnetic fields mainly concerned questions about non-thermal effects and papers on extremely low-frequency magnetic fields focused on the characterization of exposure. The impact of the indoor environment on children's health cannot be assessed merely by considering the effect of these different types of exposure: this review highlights new findings and also discusses the interactions between agents in indoor environments and also with social aspects.