1
|
Hu J, Xing J, Shao P, Ma X, Li P, Liu P, Zhang R, Chen W, Lei W, Xu RX. Raman spectroscopy with an improved support vector machine for discrimination of thyroid and parathyroid tissues. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2024; 17:e202400084. [PMID: 38890800 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.202400084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2024] [Revised: 04/24/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to discriminate thyroid and parathyroid tissues using Raman spectroscopy combined with an improved support vector machine (SVM) algorithm. In thyroid surgery, there is a risk of inadvertently removing the parathyroid glands. At present, there is a lack of research on using Raman spectroscopy to discriminate parathyroid and thyroid tissues. In this article, samples were obtained from 43 individuals with thyroid and parathyroid tissues for Raman spectroscopy analysis. This study employed partial least squares (PLS) to reduce dimensions of data, and three optimization algorithms are used to improve the classification accuracy of SVM algorithm model in spectral analysis. The results show that PLS-GA-SVM algorithm has higher diagnostic accuracy and better reliability. The sensitivity of this algorithm is 94.67% and the accuracy is 94.44%. It can be concluded that Raman spectroscopy combined with the PLS-GA-SVM diagnostic algorithm has significant potential for discriminating thyroid and parathyroid tissues.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jie Hu
- Department of Precision Machinery and Precision Instrumentation, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Jinyu Xing
- Department of Precision Machinery and Precision Instrumentation, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
- Institute of Advanced Technology, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Pengfei Shao
- Department of Precision Machinery and Precision Instrumentation, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Xiaopeng Ma
- First Affiliated Hospital, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Peikun Li
- General Surgery Department, Second Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Peng Liu
- Suzhou Institute for Advanced Research, University of Science and Technology of China, Suzhou, China
| | - Ru Zhang
- Department of Precision Machinery and Precision Instrumentation, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Wei Chen
- Department of Precision Machinery and Precision Instrumentation, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Wang Lei
- General Surgery Department, Second Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Ronald X Xu
- Department of Precision Machinery and Precision Instrumentation, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
- Suzhou Institute for Advanced Research, University of Science and Technology of China, Suzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Liu J, Wang P, Zhang H, Wu N. Distinguishing brain tumors by Label-free confocal micro-Raman spectroscopy. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther 2024; 45:104010. [PMID: 38336147 DOI: 10.1016/j.pdpdt.2024.104010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Brain tumors have serious adverse effects on public health and social economy. Accurate detection of brain tumor types is critical for effective and proactive treatment, and thus improve the survival of patients. METHODS Four types of brain tumor tissue sections were detected by Raman spectroscopy. Principal component analysis (PCA) has been used to reduce the dimensionality of the Raman spectra data. Linear discriminant analysis (LDA) and quadratic discriminant analysis (QDA) methods were utilized to discriminate different types of brain tumors. RESULTS Raman spectra were collected from 40 brain tumors. Variations in intensity and shift were observed in the Raman spectra positioned at 721, 854, 1004, 1032, 1128, 1248, 1449 cm-1 for different brain tumor tissues. The PCA results indicated that glioma, pituitary adenoma, and meningioma are difficult to differentiate from each other, whereas acoustic neuroma is clearly distinguished from the other three tumors. Multivariate analysis including QDA and LDA methods showed the classification accuracy rate of the QDA model was 99.47 %, better than the rate of LDA model was 95.07 %. CONCLUSIONS Raman spectroscopy could be used to extract valuable fingerprint-type molecular and chemical information of biological samples. The demonstrated technique has the potential to be developed to a rapid, label-free, and intelligent approach to distinguish brain tumor types with high accuracy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jie Liu
- Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China; Department of Neurosurgery, Chongqing General Hospital, Chongqing University, Chongqing, 401147, China; Chongqing Institute of Green and Intelligent Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chongqing, 400714, China; Chongqing School, University of Academy of Sciences, Chongqing, 400714, China
| | - Pan Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Chongqing General Hospital, Chongqing University, Chongqing, 401147, China
| | - Hua Zhang
- Chongqing Institute of Green and Intelligent Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chongqing, 400714, China
| | - Nan Wu
- Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China; Department of Neurosurgery, Chongqing General Hospital, Chongqing University, Chongqing, 401147, China; Chongqing Institute of Green and Intelligent Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chongqing, 400714, China; Chongqing School, University of Academy of Sciences, Chongqing, 400714, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Kujdowicz M, Januś D, Taczanowska-Niemczuk A, Lankosz MW, Adamek D. Raman Spectroscopy as a Potential Adjunct of Thyroid Nodule Evaluation: A Systematic Review. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:15131. [PMID: 37894812 PMCID: PMC10607135 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242015131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2023] [Revised: 10/07/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The incidence of thyroid nodules (TNs) is estimated at 36.5% and 23% in females and males, respectively. A single thyroid nodule is usually detected during ultrasound assessment in patients with symptoms of thyroid dysfunction or neck mass. TNs are classified as benign tumours (non-malignant hyperplasia), benign neoplasms (e.g., adenoma, a non-invasive follicular tumour with papillary nuclear features) or malignant carcinomas (follicular cell-derived or C-cell derived). The differential diagnosis is based on fine-needle aspiration biopsies and cytological assessment (which is burdened with the bias of subjectivity). Raman spectroscopy (RS) is a laser-based, semiquantitative technique which shows for oscillations of many chemical groups in one label-free measurement. RS, through the assessment of chemical content, gives insight into tissue state which, in turn, allows for the differentiation of disease on the basis of spectral characteristics. The purpose of this study was to report if RS could be useful in the differential diagnosis of TN. The Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus were searched from the beginning of the databases up to the end of June 2023. Two investigators independently screened key data using the terms "Raman spectroscopy" and "thyroid". From the 4046 records found initially, we identified 19 studies addressing the differential diagnosis of TNs applying the RS technique. The lasers used included 532, 633, 785, 830, and 1064 nm lines. The thyroid RS investigations were performed at the cellular and/or tissue level, as well as in serum samples. The accuracy of papillary thyroid carcinoma detection is approx. 90%. Furthermore, medullary, and follicular thyroid carcinoma can be detected with up to 100% accuracy. These results might be biased with low numbers of cases in some research and overfitting of models as well as the reference method. The main biochemical changes one can observe in malignancies are as follows: increase of protein, amino acids (like phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan), and nucleic acid content in comparison with non-malignant TNs. Herein, we present a review of the literature on the application of RS in the differential diagnosis of TNs. This technique seems to have powerful application potential in thyroid tumour diagnosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Monika Kujdowicz
- Department of Pathomorphology, Faculty of Medicine, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Grzegorzecka 16, 31-531 Krakow, Poland;
- Department of Pathology, University Children Hospital in Krakow, 30-663 Krakow, Poland
| | - Dominika Januś
- Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Endocrinology, Institute of Pediatrics, Jagiellonian University Medical College, 31-531 Krakow, Poland;
- Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Endocrinology, University Children Hospital in Krakow, 30-663 Krakow, Poland
| | - Anna Taczanowska-Niemczuk
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, Institute of Pediatrics, Jagiellonian University Medical College, 31-531 Krakow, Poland;
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, University Children Hospital in Krakow, 30-663 Krakow, Poland
| | - Marek W. Lankosz
- Faculty of Physics and Applied Computer Science, AGH University of Krakow, Al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Krakow, Poland;
| | - Dariusz Adamek
- Department of Pathomorphology, Faculty of Medicine, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Grzegorzecka 16, 31-531 Krakow, Poland;
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
The effects of bismuth oxide nanoparticles and cisplatin on MCF-7 breast cancer cells irradiated with Ir-192 High Dose Rate brachytherapy. JOURNAL OF RADIATION RESEARCH AND APPLIED SCIENCES 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jrras.2022.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
|
5
|
Diagnosis of Dental Fluorosis Using Micro-Raman Spectroscopy Applying a Principal Component-Linear Discriminant Analysis. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph182010572. [PMID: 34682316 PMCID: PMC8535615 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182010572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Revised: 10/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Dental fluorosis is an irreversible condition caused by excessive fluoride consumption during tooth formation and is considered a public health problem in several world regions. The objective of this study was to evaluate the capability of micro-Raman spectroscopy to classify teeth of different fluorosis severities, applying principal component analysis and linear discriminant analysis (PCA-LDA), and estimate the model cross-validation accuracy. Forty teeth of different fluorosis severities and a control group were analyzed. Ten spectra were captured from each tooth and a total of 400 micro-Raman spectra were acquired in the wavenumber range of 250 to 1200 cm−1, including the bands corresponding to stretching and bending internal vibrational modes ν1, ν2, ν3, and ν4 (PO43−). From the analysis of the micro-Raman spectra an increase in B-type carbonate ion substitution into the phosphate site of the hydroxyapatite as fluorosis severity increases was identified. The PCA-LDA model showed a sensitivity and specificity higher than 94% and 93% for the different fluorosis severity groups, respectively. The cross-validation accuracy was higher than 90%. Micro-Raman spectroscopy combined with PCA-LDA provides an adequate tool for the diagnosis of fluorosis severity. This is a non-invasive and non-destructive technique with promising applications in clinical and epidemiological fields.
Collapse
|
6
|
Resolving complex phenotypes with Raman spectroscopy and chemometrics. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2020; 66:277-282. [DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2020.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2020] [Revised: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
|
7
|
de Oliveira MAS, Campbell M, Afify AM, Huang EC, Chan JW. Hyperspectral Raman microscopy can accurately differentiate single cells of different human thyroid nodules. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2019; 10:4411-4421. [PMID: 31565498 PMCID: PMC6757446 DOI: 10.1364/boe.10.004411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2019] [Revised: 06/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/08/2019] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
We report on the use of line-scan hyperspectral Raman microscopy in combination with multivariate statistical analyses for identifying and classifying single cells isolated from clinical samples of human thyroid nodules based on their intrinsic Raman spectral signatures. A total of 248 hyperspectral Raman images of single cells from benign thyroid (n = 127) and classic variant of papillary carcinoma (n = 121) nodules were collected. Spectral differences attributed to phenylalanine, tryptophan, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids were identified for benign and papillary carcinoma cells. Using principal component analysis and linear discriminant analysis, cells were identified with 97% diagnostic accuracy. In addition, preliminary data of cells from follicular adenoma (n = 20), follicular carcinoma (n = 25), and follicular variant of papillary carcinoma (n = 18) nodules suggest the feasibility of further discrimination of subtypes. Our findings indicate that hyperspectral Raman microscopy can potentially be developed into an objective approach for analyzing single cells from fine needle aspiration (FNA) biopsies to enable the minimally invasive diagnosis of "indeterminate" thyroid nodules and other challenging cases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marcos A. S. de Oliveira
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, Univ. of California Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
| | - Michael Campbell
- Department of Surgery, Univ. of California Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
| | - Alaa M. Afify
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, Univ. of California Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
| | - Eric C. Huang
- Department of Pathology, Univ. of Washington, Seattle, WA 98104, USA
- ECH and JWC contributed equally as senior authors
| | - James W. Chan
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, Univ. of California Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
- ECH and JWC contributed equally as senior authors
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Ralbovsky NM, Lednev IK. Raman spectroscopy and chemometrics: A potential universal method for diagnosing cancer. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2019; 219:463-487. [PMID: 31075613 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2019.04.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2019] [Revised: 04/20/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2019] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Cancer is the second-leading cause of death worldwide. It affects an unfathomable number of people, with almost 16 million Americans currently living with it. While many cancers can be detected, current diagnostic efforts exhibit definite room for improvement. It is imperative that a person be diagnosed with cancer as early on in its progression as possible. An earlier diagnosis allows for the best treatment and intervention options available to be presented. Unfortunately, existing methods for diagnosing cancer can be expensive, invasive, inconclusive or inaccurate, and are not always made during initial stages of the disease. As such, there is a crucial unmet need to develop a singular universal method that is reliable, cost-effective, and non-invasive and can diagnose all forms of cancer early-on. Raman spectroscopy in combination with advanced statistical analysis is offered here as a potential solution for this need. This review covers recently published research in which Raman spectroscopy was used for the purpose of diagnosing cancer. The benefits and the risks of the methodology are presented; however, there is overwhelming evidence that suggests Raman spectroscopy is highly suitable for becoming the first universal method to be used for diagnosing cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole M Ralbovsky
- Department of Chemistry, University at Albany, SUNY, 1400 Washington Avenue, Albany, NY 12222, USA
| | - Igor K Lednev
- Department of Chemistry, University at Albany, SUNY, 1400 Washington Avenue, Albany, NY 12222, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
O'Dea D, Bongiovanni M, Sykiotis GP, Ziros PG, Meade AD, Lyng FM, Malkin A. Raman spectroscopy for the preoperative diagnosis of thyroid cancer and its subtypes: An in vitro proof-of-concept study. Cytopathology 2018; 30:51-60. [DOI: 10.1111/cyt.12636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2018] [Revised: 06/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Declan O'Dea
- School of Biological Sciences; Dublin Institute of Technology; Dublin Ireland
- DIT Centre for Radiation and Environment Science; Focas Research Institute; Dublin Institute of Technology; Dublin Ireland
| | | | - Gerasimos P. Sykiotis
- Service of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism; Lausanne University Hospital; Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Panos G. Ziros
- Service of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism; Lausanne University Hospital; Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Aidan D. Meade
- DIT Centre for Radiation and Environment Science; Focas Research Institute; Dublin Institute of Technology; Dublin Ireland
- School of Physics & Clinical & Optometric Sciences; Dublin Institute of Technology; Dublin Ireland
| | - Fiona M. Lyng
- DIT Centre for Radiation and Environment Science; Focas Research Institute; Dublin Institute of Technology; Dublin Ireland
- School of Physics & Clinical & Optometric Sciences; Dublin Institute of Technology; Dublin Ireland
| | - Alison Malkin
- School of Biological Sciences; Dublin Institute of Technology; Dublin Ireland
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Rau JV, Fosca M, Graziani V, Taffon C, Rocchia M, Caricato M, Pozzilli P, Onetti Muda A, Crescenzi A. Proof-of-concept Raman spectroscopy study aimed to differentiate thyroid follicular patterned lesions. Sci Rep 2017; 7:14970. [PMID: 29097686 PMCID: PMC5668290 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-14872-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2017] [Accepted: 10/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Inter-observer variability and cancer over-diagnosis are emerging clinical problems, especially for follicular patterned thyroid lesions. This challenge strongly calls for a new clinical tool to reliably identify neoplastic lesions and to improve the efficiency of differentiation between benign and malignant neoplasms, especially considering the increased diagnosis of small carcinomas and the growing number of thyroid nodules. In this study, we employed a Raman spectroscopy (RS) microscope to investigate frozen thyroid tissues from fourteen patients with thyroid nodules. To generate tissue classification models, a supervised statistical analysis of the Raman spectra was performed. The results obtained demonstrate an accuracy of 78% for RS based diagnosis to discriminate between normal parenchyma and follicular patterned thyroid nodules, and 89% accuracy - for very challenging follicular lesions (carcinoma versus adenoma). RS translation into intraoperative diagnosis of frozen sections and in preoperative analysis of biopsies can be very helpful to reduce unnecessary surgery in patients with indeterminate cytological reports.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julietta V Rau
- Istituto di Struttura della Materia (ISM-CNR), via del Fosso del Cavaliere 100, 00133, Roma, Italy.
| | - Marco Fosca
- Istituto di Struttura della Materia (ISM-CNR), via del Fosso del Cavaliere 100, 00133, Roma, Italy
| | - Valerio Graziani
- Istituto di Struttura della Materia (ISM-CNR), via del Fosso del Cavaliere 100, 00133, Roma, Italy
| | - Chiara Taffon
- Policlinico Universitario Campus Bio-medico, via Álvaro del Portillo 200, 00128, Roma, Italy
| | | | - Marco Caricato
- Policlinico Universitario Campus Bio-medico, via Álvaro del Portillo 200, 00128, Roma, Italy
| | - Paolo Pozzilli
- Policlinico Universitario Campus Bio-medico, via Álvaro del Portillo 200, 00128, Roma, Italy
| | - Andrea Onetti Muda
- Policlinico Universitario Campus Bio-medico, via Álvaro del Portillo 200, 00128, Roma, Italy
| | - Anna Crescenzi
- Policlinico Universitario Campus Bio-medico, via Álvaro del Portillo 200, 00128, Roma, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Donmez-Altuntas H, Bayram F, Bitgen N, Ata S, Hamurcu Z, Baskol G. Increased Chromosomal and Oxidative DNA Damage in Patients with Multinodular Goiter and Their Association with Cancer. Int J Endocrinol 2017; 2017:2907281. [PMID: 28373882 PMCID: PMC5360991 DOI: 10.1155/2017/2907281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2016] [Revised: 01/02/2017] [Accepted: 01/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Thyroid nodules are a common clinical problem worldwide. Although thyroid cancer accounts for a small percentage of thyroid nodules, the majority are benign. 8-Hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) levels are a marker of oxidative stress and play a key role in the initiation and development of a range of diseases and cancer types. This study evaluates cytokinesis-block micronucleus cytome (CBMN-cyt) assay parameters and plasma 8-OHdG levels and their association with thyroid nodule size and thyroid hormones in patients with multinodular goiter. The study included 32 patients with multinodular goiter and 18 age- and sex-matched healthy controls. CBMN-cyt assay parameters in peripheral blood lymphocytes of patients with multinodular goiter and controls were evaluated, and plasma 8-OHdG levels were measured. The micronucleus (MN) frequency (chromosomal DNA damage), apoptotic and necrotic cells (cytotoxicity), and plasma 8-OHdG levels (oxidative DNA damage) were significantly higher among patients with multinodular goiter. Our study is the first report of increased chromosomal and oxidative DNA damage in patients with multinodular goiter, which may predict an increased risk of thyroid cancer in these patients. MN frequency and plasma 8-OHdG levels may be markers of the carcinogenic potential of multinodular goiters and could be used for early detection of different cancer types, including thyroid cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hamiyet Donmez-Altuntas
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey
- *Hamiyet Donmez-Altuntas:
| | - Fahri Bayram
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Faculty of Medicine, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Nazmiye Bitgen
- Department of Chemical Technology, Technical Sciences Vocational School, Aksaray University, Aksaray, Turkey
| | - Sibel Ata
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Faculty of Medicine, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Zuhal Hamurcu
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey
| | - Gulden Baskol
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey
| |
Collapse
|