Control of liver glucokinase activity: A potential new target for incretin hormones?

Mechanism of preventive effects of exendin-4 and des-fluoro-sitagliptin in a murine model of fructose-induced prediabetes

Protective effects of exendin-4 (glucagon-like peptide-1 -GLP-1- receptor agonist) and des-fluoro-sitagliptin (dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor) on fructose-induced hepatic disturbances were evaluated in prediabetic rats. Complementary, a possible direct effect of exendin-4 in human hepatoblastoma-derived cell line HepG2 incubated with fructose in presence/absence of exendin-9-39 (GLP-1 receptor antagonist) was investigated. In vivo, after 21 days of fructose rich diet, we determined: glycemia, insulinemia, and triglyceridemia; hepatic fructokinase, AMP-deaminase, and G-6-P dehydrogenase (G-6-P DH) activities; carbohydrate-responsive element-binding protein (ChREBP) expression; triglyceride content and lipogenic gene expression (glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase -GPAT-, fatty acid synthase -FAS-, sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c -SREBP-1c); oxidative stress and inflammatory markers expression. In HepG2 cells we measured fructokinase activity and triglyceride content. Hypertriglyceridemia, hyperinsulinemia, enhanced liver fructokinase, AMP-deaminase, and G-6-P DH activities, increased ChREBP and lipogenic genes expression, enhanced triglyceride level, oxidative stress and inflammatory markers recorded in fructose fed animals, were prevented by co-administration of either exendin-4 or des-fluoro-sitagliptin. Exendin-4 prevented fructose-induced increase in fructokinase activity and triglyceride contain in HepG2 cells. These effects were blunted co-incubating with exendin-9-39. The results demonstrated for the first time that exendin-4/des-fluro-sitagliptin prevented fructose-induced endocrine-metabolic oxidative stress and inflammatory changes probably acting on the purine degradation pathway. Exendin 9-39 blunted in vitro protective exendin-4 effects, thereby suggesting a direct effect of this compound on hepatocytes through GLP-1 receptor. Direct effect on fructokinase and AMP-deaminase activities, with a key role in the pathogenesis of liver dysfunction induced by fructose, suggests purine degradation pathway constitute a potential therapeutic objective for GLP-1 receptor agonists.

Diet-induced rodent models of obesity-related metabolic disorders-A guide to a translational perspective

Diet is a critical element determining human health and diseases, and unbalanced food habits are major risk factors for the development of obesity and related metabolic disorders. Despite technological and pharmacological advances, as well as intensification of awareness campaigns, the prevalence of metabolic disorders worldwide is still increasing. Thus, novel therapeutic approaches with increased efficacy are urgently required, which often depends on cellular and molecular investigations using robust animal models. In the absence of perfect rodent models, those induced by excessive consumption of fat and sugars better replicate the key aspects that are the root causes of human metabolic diseases. However, the results obtained using these models cannot be directly compared, particularly because of the use of different dietary protocols, and animal species and strains, among other confounding factors. This review article revisits diet-induced models of obesity and related metabolic disorders, namely, metabolic syndrome, prediabetes, diabetes and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. A critical analysis focused on the main pathophysiological features of rodent models, as opposed to the criteria defined for humans, is provided as a practical guide with a translational perspective for the establishment of animal models of obesity-related metabolic diseases.

The glucagon-like peptide-1 analogue exendin-4 reverses impaired intracellular Ca(2+) signalling in steatotic hepatocytes

The release of Ca(2+) from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and subsequent replenishment of ER Ca(2+) by Ca(2+) entry through store-operated Ca(2+) channels (SOCE) play critical roles in the regulation of liver metabolism by adrenaline, glucagon and other hormones. Both ER Ca(2+) release and Ca(2+) entry are severely inhibited in steatotic hepatocytes. Exendin-4, a slowly-metabolised glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) analogue, is known to reduce liver glucose output and liver lipid, but the mechanisms involved are not well understood. The aim of this study was to determine whether exendin-4 alters intracellular Ca(2+) homeostasis in steatotic hepatocytes, and to evaluate the mechanisms involved. Exendin-4 completely reversed lipid-induced inhibition of SOCE in steatotic liver cells, but did not reverse lipid-induced inhibition of ER Ca(2+) release. The action of exendin-4 on Ca(2+) entry was rapid in onset and was mimicked by GLP-1 or dibutyryl cyclic AMP. In steatotic liver cells, exendin-4 caused a rapid decrease in lipid (half time 6.5min), inhibited the accumulation of lipid in liver cells incubated in the presence of palmitate plus the SOCE inhibitor BTP-2, and enhanced the formation of cyclic AMP. Hormone-stimulated accumulation of extracellular glucose in glycogen replete steatotic liver cells was inhibited compared to that in non-steatotic cells, and this effect of lipid was reversed by exendin-4. It is concluded that, in steatotic hepatocytes, exendin-4 reverses the lipid-induced inhibition of SOCE leading to restoration of hormone-regulated cytoplasmic Ca(2+) signalling. The mechanism may involve GLP-1 receptors, cyclic AMP, lipolysis, decreased diacylglycerol and decreased activity of protein kinase C.