Fructus Aurantii induced antidepressant effect via its monoaminergic mechanism and prokinetic action in rat

Mind shift I: Fructus Aurantii - Rhizoma Chuanxiong synergistically anchors stress-induced depression-like behaviours and gastrointestinal dysmotility cluster by regulating psycho-immune-neuroendocrine network

BACKGROUND

Researchers have not studied the integrity, orderly correlation, and dynamic openness of complex organisms and explored the laws of systems from a global perspective. In the context of reductionism, antidepressant development formerly focused on advanced technology and molecular details, clear targets and mechanisms, but the clinical results were often unsatisfactory.

PURPOSE

MDD represents an aggregate of different and highly diverse disease subtypes. The co-occurrence of stress-induced nonrandom multimorbidity is widespread, whereas only a fraction of the potential clusters are well known, such as the MDD-FGID cluster. Mapping these clusters, and determining which are nonrandom, is vital for discovering new mechanisms, developing treatments, and reconfiguring services to better meet patient needs.

STUDY DESIGN

Acute stress 15-minute forced swimming (AFS) or CUMS protocols can induce the nonrandom MDD-FGID cluster. Multiple biological processes of rats with depression-like behaviours and gastrointestinal dysmobility will be captured under conditions of stress, and the Fructus Aurantii-Rhizoma Chuanxiong (ZQCX) decoction will be utilized to dock the MDD-FGID cluster.

METHODS/RESULTS

Here, Rhizoma Chuanxiong, one of the seven components of Chaihu-shugan-San, elicited the best antidepressant effect on CUMS rats, followed by Fructus Aurantii. ZQCX reversed AFS-induced depression-like behaviours and gastrointestinal dysmobility by regulating the glutamatergic system, AMPAR/BDNF/mTOR/synapsin I pathway, ghrelin signalling and gastrointestinal nitric oxide synthase. Based on the bioethnopharmacological analysis strategy, the determined meranzin hydrate (MH) and senkyunolide I (SI) by UPLC-PDA, simultaneously absorbed by the jejunum and hippocampus of rats, have been considered major absorbed bioactive compounds acting on behalf of ZQCX. Cotreatment with MH and SI at an equivalent dose in ZQCX synergistically replicated over 50.33 % efficacy of the parent formula in terms of antidepressant and prokinetic actions by modulating neuroinflammation and ghrelin signalling.

CONCLUSION

Brain-centric mind shifts require the integration of multiple central and peripheral systems and the elucidation of the underlying neurobiological mechanisms that ultimately contribute to novel therapeutic options. Ghrelin signalling and the immune system may partially underlie multimorbidity vulnerability, and ZQCX anchors stress-induced MDD-FGID clusters by docking them. Combining the results of micro details with the laws of the macro world may be more effective in finding treatments for MDD.

Phytomedicine Fructus Aurantii-derived two absorbed compounds unlock antidepressant and prokinetic multi-functions via modulating 5-HT3/GHSR

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Fructus Aurantii (FA), a well-known phytomedicine, has been employed to evoke antidepressant and prokinetic multi-functions. Therein, systematically identifying bioactive components and the referred mechanism is essential for FA.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study was planned to answer "2 W" (What and Why), such as which components and pathways contribute to FA's multi-functions. We aimed to identify bioactive compounds as the key for opening the lock of FA's multi-functions, and the molecule mechanisms are their naturally matched lock cylinder.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The phytochemical content of FA extract was determined, and the compounds were identified in rats pretreated with FA using liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The contribution strategy was used to assess bioactive compounds' efficacy (doses = their content in FA) in model rats with the mechanism. The changes in functional brain regions were determined via 7.0 T functional magnetic resonance imaging-blood oxygen level-dependent (fMRI-BOLD).

RESULT

Eight phytochemicals' content was detected, and merely six components were identified in rats in vivo. Meranzin hydrate + hesperidin (MH), as the primary contributor of FA, exerted antidepressant and prokinetic effects (improvement of indexes for immobility time, gastric emptying, intestinal transit, CRH, ghrelin, ACTH, DA, NA, 5-HT, CORT, and 5-HT3) by regulating 5-HT3/Growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHSR) pathway. These results were validated by 5-HT2A, 5-HT3, and GHSR receptor antagonists combined with molecule docking. MH restored the excessive BOLD activation of the left accumbens nucleus, left corpus callosum and hypothalamus preoptic region.

CONCLUSION

Absorbed MH accounts for FA's anti-depressant and prokinetic efficacy in acutely-stressed rats, primarily via 5-HT3/GHSR shared regulation.

Efficacy and safety of Qixue Tongzhi Granule in improving the exercise capacity of stable coronary artery disease: study protocol for a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

Background

Despite optimal medical therapy, patients with stable coronary artery disease (SCAD) still have a high risk of recurrent cardiovascular events. Exercise capacity measured by cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) is a good surrogate marker for the long-term prognosis of SCAD. Qixue Tongzhi Granule (QTG) is created by academician Chen Keji and has the function of tonifying qi, promoting blood circulation, and regulating qi-flowing. This trial aims to investigate the efficacy and safety of QTG in improving exercise tolerance, alleviating angina pectoris and anxiety/depression symptoms, promoting health-related quality of life, and reducing the risk of adverse cardiovascular events in subjects with SCAD.

Methods

This is a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. 150 SCAD patients with qi deficiency, blood stasis, and liver qi stagnation syndrome are enrolled. Patients will be randomly allocated to the QTG or placebo groups at a 1:1 ratio. QTG and placebo will be added to the modern guideline-directed medical therapy for 12 weeks and patients will be followed up for another 24 weeks. The primary outcome is the improvement of metabolic equivalents measured by CPET. The secondary outcomes are cumulative incidence of composite endpoint events, other indicators in CPET, changes in the Seattle Angina Questionnaire, traditional Chinese medicine syndrome scale, 12 items of Short Form Health Survey Questionnaire, Patient Health Questionnaire-9, and Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7, changes of ST-T segment in the electrocardiogram, improvement of left ventricular ejection fraction and left ventricular end-diastolic diameter in echocardiography. In addition, metabolomics analysis will be performed based on blood samples. Adverse events and safety evaluations will also be documented. A full analysis set, per protocol set, and safety analysis set will be conducted.

Discussion

This clinical trial can enrich treatment options for CHD patients with low cardiorespiratory fitness and psychological imbalance, and it may also create a new situation for promoting the application of traditional Chinese medicine in cardiac rehabilitation.Clinical Trial Registration: [http://www.chictr.org.cn], identifier: [ChiCTR2200058988].

Effects of Meranzin Hydrate On the LncRNA-miRNA-mRNA Regulatory Network in the Hippocampus of a Rat Model of Depression

Meranzin hydrate (MH) is a frequently used antidepressant drug in China; however it underlying mechanism remains unknown. In this study, we aimed to explore whether MH could ameliorate depression-like behavior in rats by regulating the competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) network. We developed a depression-like rat model using an unpredictable chronic mild stress (UCMS) protocol, and the differentially expressed lncRNAs, miRNAs, and mRNAs were identified between the model group and MH group. Then, a ceRNA network responding to MH treatment was constructed by their corresponding relationships in the databases. Finally, Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses were conducted to explore molecular mechanisms associated with MH treatment. The study indicated that rats in the model group showed loss of weight and deteriorated behavior in behavior tests compared with rats in the normal group. A total of 826 lncRNAs, 121 miRNAs, and 954 mRNAs were differentially expressed in the hippocampus of UCMS rats after MH treatment. In addition, 13 miRNAs were selected, and 12 of them were validated in the hippocampus by qRT-PCR. Then, we predicted upstream lncRNAs and downstream mRNAs of the validated miRNAs and interacted with the results of microarrays. Eventually, a lncRNA-miRNA-mRNA regulatory network, responding to MH treatment, was constructed based on the 314 lncRNAs, 11 miRNAs, and 221 mRNAs. KEGG pathways suggested that these genes may be highly related to Wnt signaling, axon guidance, and MAPK signaling pathways. All these results suggest that MH may be a potential representative compound for the treatment of depression, and its mechanism of action is related to the ceRNA modification.

Metabolic Profile of C-Prenyl Coumarins Using Mass Spectrometry-Based Metabolomics

C-prenyl coumarins (C-PYCs) are compounds with similar structures and various bioactivities, which are widely distributed in medicinal plants. Until now, the metabolic characterizations of C-PYCs and the relationship between metabolism and bioactivities remain unclear. In this study, ultra-performance chromatography electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry-based metabolomics (UPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS) was firstly used to determine the metabolic characterizations of three C-PYCs, including meranzin hydrate (MH), isomeranzin (ISM), and meranzin (MER). In total, 52 metabolites were identified, and all of them were found to be novel metabolites. Among these metabolites, 10 were from MH, 22 were from ISM, and 20 were from MER. The major metabolic pathways of these C-PYCs were hydroxylation, dehydrogenation, demethylation, and conjugation with cysteine, N-acetylcysteine, and glucuronide. The metabolic rate of MH was much lower than ISM and MER, which was only 27.1% in MLM and 8.7% in HLM, respectively. Additionally, recombinant cytochrome P450 (CYP) screening showed that CYP1A1, 2B6, 3A4, and 3A5 were the major metabolic enzymes involved in the formation of metabolites. Further bioactivity assays indicated that all of these three C-PYCs exhibited anti-inflammatory activity, but the effects of ISM and MER were slightly higher than MH, accompanied by a significant decrease in inflammatory cytokines transcription induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in macrophages RAW 264.7. Taken together, the metabolic characterizations of the three C-PYCs suggested that the side chain of the prenyl group may impact the metabolism and biological activity of C-PYCs.

Based on UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS, Systematic Network Pharmacology, and Molecular Docking to Explore the Potential Mechanism of Fructus Aurantii for Major Depression Disorder

Background

Major Depression Disorder (MDD) is a common mental disease that has become one of the world's major medical diseases. Currently, the Fructus Aurantii (FA) has been widely used to treat depression. However, the active substance ingredients and potential mechanisms of the shell antidepression have not yet been clarified.

Method

First, we used ultraperformance liquid chromatography-quadrupole/time-of-flight tandem mass (UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS) technology to identify the chemical composition of the FA. Then, it is predicted for active ingredients, pharmaceutical disease target screening by DiscoveryStudio 2016 (DS), Metascape, and other databases, PPI network diagram, and FC core pathway. Finally, the system network pharmacology results are verified by molecular contact verification.

Results

Forty-six compounds in FA were identified, and twelve active ingredients were determined. Various database information, PPI network analysis of 41 intersections, and 20 core targets including DRD2, MTOR, FASP3, and PIK3P1 were integrated. Finally, the MDD treatment is indicated by molecular docking, and the most relevant potential signal pathway is the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway.

Medicinal Plants in the Treatment of Depression: Evidence from Preclinical Studies

Medicinal plants and their extracts are natural remedies with enormous potential for treating various diseases, including depression and anxiety. In the case of depression, hundreds of plants have traditionally been used in folk medicine for generations. Different plant extracts and natural products have been analyzed as potential antidepressant agents with validated models to test for antidepressant-like effects in animals, although other complementary studies have also been employed. Most of these studies focus on the possible mediators implicated in these potential effects, with dopamine, serotonin, and noradrenaline being the principal neurotransmitters implicated, both through interference with receptors and with their metabolism by monoamino oxidases, as well as through neuro-endocrine and neuroprotective effects. There are approximately 650 reports of antidepressant-like medicinal plants in PubMed; 155 of them have been compiled in this review, with a relevant group yielding positive results. Saffron and turmeric are the most relevant species studied in both preclinical and clinical studies; St. John's wort or kava have also been tested extensively. To the best of our knowledge, no review to date has provided a comprehensive understanding of the biomolecular mechanisms of action of these herbs or of whether their potential effects could have real benefits. The purpose of this narrative review is to provide an update regarding medicinal plants from the year 2000 to the present to examine the therapeutic potential of these antidepressant-like plants in order to contribute to the development of new therapeutic methods to alleviate the tremendous burden that depression causes worldwide.

Systematically Deciphering the Pharmacological Mechanism of Fructus Aurantii via Network Pharmacology

Fructus Aurantii (FA) is a traditional herbal medicine that has been widely used for thousands of years in China and possesses a variety of pharmacological effects. However, the active ingredients in FA and the potential mechanisms of its therapeutic effects have not been fully explored. Here, we applied a network pharmacology approach to explore the potential mechanisms of FA. We identified 5 active compounds from FA and a total of 209 potential targets to construct a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network. Prostaglandin G/H synthase 2 (PTGS2), heat shock protein 90 (HSP90), cell division protein kinase 6 (CDK6), caspase 3 (CASP3), apoptosis regulator Bcl-2 (Bcl-2), and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9) were identified as key targets of FA in the treatment of multiple diseases. Gene ontology (GO) enrichment demonstrated that FA was highly related to transcription initiation from RNA polymerase II promoter, DNA-templated transcription, positive regulation of transcription, regulation of apoptosis process, and regulation of cell proliferation. Various signaling pathways involved in the treatment of FA were identified, including pathways in cancer and pathways specifically related to prostate cancer, colorectal cancer, PI3K-Akt, apoptosis, and non-small-cell lung cancer. TP53, AKT1, caspase 3, MAPK3, PTGS2, and BAX/BCL2 were related key targets in the identified enriched pathways and the PPI network. In addition, our molecular docking results showed that the bioactive compounds in FA can tightly bind to most target proteins. This article reveals via network pharmacology research the possible mechanism(s) by which FA exerts its activities in the treatment of various diseases and lays a foundation for further experiments and the development of a rational clinical application of FA.

Evaluation of the Antidepressant Effect of the Functional Beverage Containing Active Peptides, Menthol and Eleutheroside and Investigation of Its Mechanism of Action in Mice

Research background

Depression has become a global threat to human health. In order to solve it, researchers have conducted multi-faceted studies including diet. Many food-derived bioactive substances have shown antidepressant effects. However, there are few studies on the design of industrialized food with antidepressant effect. This study aims to evaluate the antidepressant effect of a functional beverage made from several ingredients with potential antidepressant function and investigate its antidepressant mechanisms.

Experimental approach

The beverage consists of peppermint oil, active peptides derived from bovine milk casein and Acanthopanax senticosus extract (ASE) whose active ingredient is eleutheroside. Different amounts of ASE were evaluated to determine the optimal concentration of eleutheroside in this functional beverage to deliver the best antidepressant effect through extensive behavioral testing, including preliminary acute stress experiments and further chronic unpredictable mild stress test.

Results and conclusions

The results demonstrated that the beverage with 15 mg/kg of eleutheroside could significantly reduce the mice’s immobility time of tail suspension test and forced swimming test, recover mice’s sucrose preference and behavior changes in the open field test, improve the contents of dopamine, norepinephrine, 5-hydroxytryptamine and the activity of superoxide dismutase and reduce the content of malondialdehyde in mice’s brains, which indicated that the improvement of monoamine neurotransmitter systems and antioxidation was one potential mechanism of antidepressant action.

Novelty and scientific contribution

This study provides a design of antidepressant functional beverage and an efficient way for the prevention and treatment of depression.

Narirutin produces antidepressant-like effects in a chronic unpredictable mild stress mouse model

Depression is a highly debilitating and life-threatening mental disorder, which is accompanied by dysregulation of the peripheral and central immune system. Narirutin (NR), which has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, is one of the active constituents isolated from Citrus unshiu. However, its potential antidepressant-like and anxiolytic-like effects are poorly understood. The present study was aimed to investigate whether NR confers an antidepressant-like effect in mice exposed to a chronic mild stress (CMS) model of depression. The results showed that NR treatment for 1 week significantly alleviated the depressive-like behaviours of CMS-exposed mice, as indicated by restored decreased sucrose preference and shortened floating time in the forced swimming test. Moreover, NR treatment significantly blocked the CMS-induced anxiety-like behaviors, including increased time spent in the central zone in the open field test, and shortened the latency to feeding in the novelty suppressed feeding test. Taken together, our findings suggested that NR exerted potential antidepressant-like and anxiolytic-like effects in CMS mice model of depression, which support further exploration into developing NR as a novel agent to treat depression and even other stress-related disorders.

Potential Metabolic Drug-Drug Interaction of Citrus aurantium L. (Rutaceae) Evaluating by Its Effect on 3 CYP450

Aim:Fructus aurantii (FA) is widely used in clinic as an expectorant and digestant herb in traditional Chinese medicine and proven to have a variety of pharmacological functions. FA is close to grapefruit either by botanical taxonomy or by their same components (flavonoids, etc.) and grapefruit has been proven to cause drug-drug interaction when co-administrated with CYP3A4 substrates. Besides, FA contains many compounds, such as flavonoids, which have been reported to impact the expressions of CYP450. However, the effect of FA on CYP450, whose change may affect drug safety and clinical efficacy attributed to drug-drug interaction, still remains unknown. Methods: The protein, mRNA expression and enzyme activity of CYP1A2, CYP3A4, and CYP2E1 in rat were determined by Western Blotting, RT-PCR method, the cocktail method, respectively, after orally administration of FA in succession for 7 days. CYP1A2, CYP3A4, and CYP2E1 mRNA expression were investigated in HepG2 cells following FA-medicated serum incubation for 24 h. Results: In rat, compared to the control group, CYP1A2, CYP3A4 protein, and mRNA expression were significantly induced consistent with the corresponding CYP activities; the protein expression of CYP2E1 was significantly upregulated, while the corresponding mRNA expression and enzyme activity showed no significant change. In HepG2 cells, compared to the control group, the mRNA expression of CYP1A2 and CYP3A4 was up-regulated statistically while CYP2E1 mRNA expression was not significantly induced or inhibited. Conclusion: FA may be a potential slight inducer of CYP1A2 and CYP3A4 and is unlikely to impact CYP2E1 until clinical researches are conducted.

Pharmacokinetic Study of 7 Compounds Following Oral Administration of Fructus Aurantii to Depressive Rats

In the present study, the pharmacokinetics of multi-components (naringenin, nobiletin, meranzin hydrate, narirutin, naringin, hesperidin, and neohesperidin) were investigated in acute depressive rats following oral administration of Fructus Aurantii (Zhi-Qiao, ZQ) extract (20 g/kg). A rapid and reliable liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was established to quantitatively or qualitatively analyze the 7 absorbed ingredients in the plasma, hippocampus and cortex of acute depressive rats. Biological samples were separated on a 300SB-C18 column, and the 7 compounds were detected with sequential positive and negative ionization modes. Our results confirmed that ZQ has antidepressant effects by decreasing the immobility time. In addition, this validated method showed good linearity (r ≥ 0.9987), and the lower limits of quantification were 2.73–16.38 ng/mL for the 7 analytes. This method successfully determined the pharmacokinetics of the 7 compounds and separated two pairs of isomers in plasma of acute depressive rats following oral administration of ZQ extracts. The 7 active ingredients were also identified as marked compounds in target tissues and should be further examined in pharmacokinetic studies with acute depressive rats. So, pharmacokinetic compounds were precisely linked with the antidepressant effect of ZQ in our study. This relationship is well-understood and contributes to the application of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM).

Two new phenolic glycosides isolated from the fruits of Citrus aurantium

The present study was designed to investigate the chemical constituents of the fruit of Citrus aurantium L.. The compounds were isolated and purified by various chromatographic techniques, and their structures were elucidated on the basis of physicochemical properties and spectral data. Two new phenolic glycosides (compounds 1 and 2) were obtained and identified as 1-O-3, 5-dihydroxyphenyl-(6-O-4-hydroxybenzoyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside (1) and 1-O-3, 5-dihydroxyphenyl-(6-O-3-methoxy-4-hydroxy benzoyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside (2), respectively.

Zhiqiaochuanxiong decoction for major depressive disorder complicated by functional dyspepsia: a case report with fast-acting efficacy

OBJECTIVE

To introduce a clinical case from Professor Huang Xi from Xiangya Hospital in traditional Chinese medical (TCM) treatment for a major depressive disorder (MDD) complicated by functional dyspepsia (FD).

METHODS

A 26-year old unemployed male migrant worker (Han nationality) presented himself at the TCM outpatient department of our hospital on May 13th 2013, with the chief complaint of persistent low mood and negative emotions lasting 2.5 years. He was diagnosed as having MDD complicated by FD. The TCM differentiation made was "Ganqi-Yujie" (Liver-Qi stagnation). Zhiqiaochuanxiong (ZQCX) decoction, composed of Zhiqiao (Fructus Aurantii Submaturus) 40 g and Chuanxiong (Rhizoma Chuanxiong) 40 g, was given to be taken twice daily. The patient's condition was evaluated with a 128-channel electroencephalogram (EEG) and high-resolution manometry (HRM). During follow-up the patient was monitored with the Patient Health Questionnaire and Leeds Dyspepsia Questionnaire.

RESULTS

After treatment, the symptoms of depression and the FD comorbidity disappeared. Furthermore, the main EEG and HRM were significantly improved after 1-7 weeks of ZQCX decoction administration.

CONCLUSION

ZQCX decoction showed rapid prokinetic and anti-depressive effects in a MDD patient complicated by FD. Most commonly used antidepressants target only the brain, whereas ZQCX decoction targets the brain-gut axis according to TCM theory.

Antidepressant-like effect of the water extract of the fixed combination of Gardenia jasminoides, Citrus aurantium and Magnolia officinalis in a rat model of chronic unpredictable mild stress

BACKGROUND

Water extract of the fixed combination of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis fruit, Citrus aurantium L. fruit and Magnolia officinalis Rehd. et Wils. bark, traditional name - Zhi-Zi-Hou-Po (ZZHPD) is used for treatment of depressive-like symptoms in traditional Chinese medicine for centuries.

HYPOTHESIS/PURPOSE

The present study aimed to explore antidepressant-like effects and potential mechanisms of ZZHPD in a rat model of chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS).

STUDY DESIGN

Antidepressant-like effects of ZZHPD were investigated through behavioral tests, and potential mechanism was assessed by neuroendocrine system, neurotrophin and hippocampal neurogenesis.

METHODS

Antidepressant-like effects of ZZHPD (3.66, 7.32 and 14.64 g/kg/day) were estimated through coat state test, sucrose preference test, forced swimming test and open-field test. Effects of ZZHPD on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis were evaluated by hormones measurement and dexamethasone suppression test. In addition, the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in hippocampus was measured, as well as hippocampal neurogenesis was investigated by doublecortin (DCX) and 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine/neuronal nuclei (BrdU/NeuN).

RESULTS

The results demonstrated that ZZHPD significantly reversed the depressive-like behaviors, normalized the levels of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and corticosterone (CORT), restored the negative feedback loop of HPA axis and improved the levels of BDNF, DCX and BrdU/NeuN compared with those in CUMS-induced rats.

CONCLUSION

The above results revealed that ZZHPD exerted antidepressant-like effects possibly by normalizing HPA axis function, increasing expression of BDNF in hippocampus and promoting hippocampal neurogenesis.

Effects of bergamot ( Citrus bergamia (Risso) Wright & Arn.) essential oil aromatherapy on mood states, parasympathetic nervous system activity, and salivary cortisol levels in 41 healthy females

BACKGROUND

Bergamot essential oil (BEO) is commonly used against psychological stress and anxiety in aromatherapy. The primary aim of the present study was to obtain first clinical evidence for these psychological and physiological effects. A secondary aim was to achieve some fundamental understanding of the relevant pharmacological processes.

METHODS

Endocrinological, physiological, and psychological effects of BEO vapor inhalation on 41 healthy females were tested using a random crossover study design. Volunteers were exposed to 3 experimental setups (rest (R), rest + water vapor (RW), rest + water vapor + bergamot essential oil (RWB)) for 15 min each. Immediately after each setup, saliva samples were collected and the volunteers rested for 10 min. Subsequently, they completed the Profile of Mood States, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and Fatigue Self-Check List. High-frequency (HF) heart rate values, an indicator for parasympathetic nervous system activity, were calculated from heart rate variability values measured both during the 15 min of the experiment and during the subsequent 10 min of rest. Salivary cortisol (CS) levels in the saliva samples were analyzed using ELISA.

RESULTS

CS of all 3 conditions R, RW, and RWB were found to be significantly distinct (p = 0.003). In the subsequent multiple comparison test, the CS value of RWB was significantly lower when compared to the R setup. When comparing the HF values of the RWB setup during the 10 min of rest after the experiment to those of RW, this parameter was significantly increased (p = 0.026) in the RWB setup for which scores for negative emotions and fatigue were also improved.

CONCLUSION

These results demonstrate that BEO inhaled together with water vapor exerts psychological and physiological effects in a relatively short time.

Plant-derived natural medicines for the management of depression: an overview of mechanisms of action

Depression is a serious widespread psychiatric disorder that affects approximately 17% of people all over the world. Exploring the neurological mechanisms of the antidepressant activity of plant-derived agents could have a crucial role in developing natural drugs for the management of depression. The aim of the present study is to review the neurological mechanisms of action of antidepressant plants and their constituents. For this purpose, electronic databases, including PubMed, Science Direct, Scopus, and Cochrane Library, were searched from 1966 to October 2013. The results showed that several molecular mechanisms could be proposed for the antidepressant activity of medicinal plants and their constituents.