Comparative cytotoxicity of chelidonine and homochelidonine, the dimethoxy analogues isolated from Chelidonium majus L. (Papaveraceae), against human leukemic and lung carcinoma cells

Alkaloids in Chelidonium majus L: a review of its phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology

Chelidonium majus L. (C. majus), commonly known as "Bai Qu Cai" in China, belongs to the genus Chelidonium of the Papaveraceae family. It has rich medicinal value, such as alleviating coughs, asthma, spasms and pain. Recent studies have demonstrated that C. majus is abundant in various alkaloids, which are the primary components of C. majus and have a range of pharmacological effects, including anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, anti-viral, and anti-tumor effects. So far, 94 alkaloids have been isolated from C. majus, including benzophenanthridine, protoberberine, aporphine, protopine and other types of alkaloids. This paper aims to review the research progress in phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of C. majus alkaloids, in order to provide a theoretical basis for the application of C. majus in the field of medicinal chemistry and to afford reference for further research and development efforts.

Insights on Antitumor Activity and Mechanism of Natural Benzophenanthridine Alkaloids

Benzophenanthridine alkaloids are a class of isoquinoline compounds, which are widely found in the plants of papaveraceae, corydalis, and rutaceae. Biological activities and clinical studies have shown that benzophenanthridine alkaloids have inhibitory effects on many cancers. Considering that the anticancer activities and mechanisms of many natural benzophenanthridine alkaloids have been discovered in succession, the purpose of this paper is to review the anticancer effects of benzophenanthridine alkaloids and explore the application potential of these natural products in the development of antitumor drugs. A literature survey was carried out using Scopus, Pubmed, Reaxys, and Google Scholar databases. This review summarizes and analyzes the current status of research on the antitumor activity and antitumor mechanism of natural products of benzophenanthridine from different sources. The research progress of the antitumor activity of natural products of benzophenanthridine from 1983 to 2023 was reviewed. The antitumor activities of 90 natural products of benzophenanthridine and their related analogues were summarized, and the results directly or indirectly showed that natural products of benzophenanthridine had the effects of antidrug-resistant tumor cell lines, antitumor stem cells, and inducing ferroptosis. In conclusion, benzophenanthridine alkaloids have inhibitory effects on a variety of cancers and have the potential to counteract tumor resistance, and they have great application potential in the development of antitumor drugs.

Determination of Selected Isoquinoline Alkaloids from Chelidonium majus, Mahonia aquifolium and Sanguinaria canadensis Extracts by Liquid Chromatography and Their In Vitro and In Vivo Cytotoxic Activity against Human Cancer Cells

The search for new substances with cytotoxic activity against various cancer cells, especially cells that are very resistant to currently used chemotherapeutic agents, such as melanoma cells, is a very important scientific aspect. We investigated the cytotoxic effect of Chelidonium majus, Mahonia aquifolium and Sanguinaria canadensis extracts obtained from different parts of these plants collected at various vegetation stages on FaDu, SCC-25, MCF-7, and MDA-MB-231 cancer cells. Almost all the tested extracts showed higher cytotoxicity against these cancer cells than the anticancer drug etoposide. The highest cytotoxicity against the FaDu, SCC-25, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cancer cell lines was obtained for the Sanguinaria candensis extract collected before flowering. The cytotoxicity of extracts obtained from different parts of Chelidonium majus collected at various vegetation stages was also evaluated on melanoma cells (A375, G361 and SK-MEL-3). The highest cytotoxic activity against melanoma A375 cells was observed for the Chelidonium majus root extract, with an IC50 of 12.65 μg/mL. The same extract was the most cytotoxic against SK-MEL-3 cells (IC50 = 1.93 μg/mL), while the highest cytotoxic activity against G361 cells was observed after exposure to the extract obtained from the herb of the plant. The cytotoxic activity of Chelidonium majus extracts against melanoma cells was compared with the cytotoxicity of the following anticancer drugs: etoposide, cisplatin and hydroxyurea. In most cases, the IC50 values obtained for the anticancer drugs were higher than those obtained for the Chelidonium majus extracts. The most cytotoxic extract obtained from the root of Chelidonium majus was selected for in vivo cytotoxic activity investigations using a Danio rerio larvae xenograft model. The model was applied for the first time in the in vivo investigations of the extract’s anticancer potential. The application of Danio rerio larvae xenografts in cancer research is advantageous because of the transparency and ease of compound administration, the small size and the short duration and low cost of the experiments. The results obtained in the xenograft model confirmed the great effect of the investigated extract on the number of cancer cells in a living organism. Our investigations show that the investigated plant extracts exhibit very high cytotoxic activity and can be recommended for further experiments in order to additionally confirm their potential use in the treatment of various human cancers.

Tap the sap - investigation of latex-bearing plants in the search of potential anticancer biopharmaceuticals

Latex-bearing plants have been in the research spotlight for the past couple of decades. Since ancient times their extracts have been used in folk medicine to treat various illnesses. Currently they serve as promising candidates for cancer treatment. Up to date there have been several in vitro and in vivo studies related to the topic of cytotoxicity and anticancer activity of extracts from latex-bearing plants towards various cell types. The number of clinical studies still remains scarce, however, over the years the number is systematically increasing. To the best of our knowledge, the scientific community is still lacking in a recent review summarizing the research on the topic of cytotoxicity and anticancer activity of latex-bearing plant extracts. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to review the current knowledge on in vitro and in vivo studies, which focus on the cytotoxicity and anticancer activities of latex-bearing plants. The vast majority of the studies are in vitro, however, the interest in this topic has resulted in the substantial growth of the number of in vivo studies, leading to a promising number of plant species whose latex can potentially be tested in clinical trials. The paper is divided into sections, each of them focuses on specific latex-bearing plant family representatives and their potential anticancer activity, which in some instances is comparable to that induced by commonly used therapeutics currently available on the market. The cytotoxic effect of the plant's crude latex, its fractions or isolated compounds, is analyzed, along with a study of cell apoptosis, chromatin condensation, DNA damage, changes in gene regulation and morphology changes, which can be observed in cell post plant extract addition. The in vivo studies go beyond the molecular level by showing significant reduction of the tumor growth and volume in animal models. Additionally, we present data regarding plant-mediated biosynthesis of nanoparticles, which is regarded as a new branch in plant latex research. It is solely based on the green-synthesis approach, which presents an interesting alternative to chemical-based nanoparticle synthesis. We have analyzed the cytotoxic effect of these particles on cells. Data regarding the cytotoxicity of such particles raises their potential to be involved in the design of novel cancer therapies, which further underlines the significance of latex-bearing plants in biotechnology. Throughout the course of this review, we concluded that plant latex is a rich source of many compounds, which can be further investigated and applied in the design of anticancer pharmaceuticals. The molecules, to which this cytotoxic effect can be attributed, include alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, terpenoids, proteases, nucleases and many novel compounds, which still remain to be characterized. They have been studied extensively in both in vitro and in vivo studies, which provide an excellent starting point for their rapid transfer to clinical studies in the near future. The comprehensive study of molecules from latex-bearing plants can result in finding a promising alternative to several pharmaceuticals on the market and help unravel the molecular mode of action of latex-based preparations.

Rediscovery of Traditional Plant Medicine: An Underestimated Anticancer Drug of Chelerythrine

In many studies, the extensive and significant anticancer activity of chelerythrine (CHE) was identified, which is the primary natural active compound in four traditional botanical drugs and can be applied as a promising treatment in various solid tumors. So this review aimed to summarize the anticancer capacities and the antitumor mechanism of CHE. The literature searches revolving around CHE have been carried out on PubMed, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and MEDLINE databases. Increasing evidence indicates that CHE, as a benzophenanthridine alkaloid, exhibits its excellent anticancer activity as CHE can intervene in tumor progression and inhibit tumor growth in multiple ways, such as induction of cancer cell apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, prevention of tumor invasion and metastasis, autophagy-mediated cell death, bind selectively to telomeric G-quadruplex and strongly inhibit the telomerase activity through G-quadruplex stabilization, reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and PKC. The role of CHE against diverse types of cancers has been investigated in many studies and has been identified as the main antitumor drug candidate in drug discovery programs. The current complex data suggest the potential value in clinical application and the future direction of CHE as a therapeutic drug in cancer. Furthermore, the limitations and the present problems are also highlighted in this review. Despite the unclearly delineated molecular targets of CHE, extensive research in this area provided continuously fresh data exploitable in the clinic while addressing the present requirement for further studies such as toxicological studies, combination medication, and the development of novel chemical methods or biomaterials to extend the effects of CHE or the development of its derivatives and analogs, contributing to the effective transformation of this underestimated anticancer drug into clinical practice. We believe that this review can provide support for the clinical application of a new anticancer drug in the future.

Chelidonium majus Induces Apoptosis of Human Ovarian Cancer Cells via ATF3-Mediated Regulation of Foxo3a by Tip60

Forkhead transcription factor 3a (Foxo3a) is believed to be a tumor suppressor as its inactivation leads to cell transformation and tumor development. However, further investigation is required regarding the involvement of the activating transcription factor 3 (ATF3)-mediated Tat-interactive protein 60 (Tip60)/Foxo3a pathway in cancer cell apoptosis. This study demonstrated that Chelidonium majus upregulated the expression of ATF3 and Tip60 and promoted Foxo3a nuclear translocation, ultimately increasing the level of Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax) protein. ATF3 overexpression stimulated Tip60 expression, while ATF3 inhibition by siRNA repressed Tip60 expression. Furthermore, siRNA-mediated Tip60 inhibition significantly promoted Foxo3a phosphorylation, leading to blockade of Foxo3a translocation into the nucleus. Thus, we were able to deduce that ATF3 mediates the regulation of Foxo3a by Tip60. Moreover, siRNA-mediated Foxo3a inhibition suppressed the expression of Bax and subsequent apoptosis. Taken together, our data demonstrate that Chelidonium majus induces SKOV-3 cell death by increasing ATF3 levels and its downstream proteins Tip60 and Foxo3a. This suggests a potential therapeutic role of Chelidonium majus against ovarian cancer.

Opposing Effects of Chelidonine on Tyrosine and Serine Phosphorylation of STAT3 in Human Uveal Melanoma Cells

STAT3 is a transcription factor that regulates various cellular processes with oncogenic potential, thereby promoting tumorigenesis when activated uncontrolled. STAT3 activation is mediated by its tyrosine phosphorylation, triggering dimerization and nuclear translocation. STAT3 also contains a serine phosphorylation site, with a postulated regulatory role in STAT3 activation and G2/M transition. Interleukin-6, a major activator of STAT3, is present in elevated concentrations in uveal melanomas, suggesting contribution of dysregulated STAT3 activation to their pathogenesis. Here, we studied the impact of chelidonine on STAT3 signaling in human uveal melanoma cells. Chelidonine, an alkaloid isolated from Chelidonium majus, disrupts microtubules, causes mitotic arrest and provokes cell death in numerous tumor cells. According to our flow cytometry and confocal microscopy data, chelidonine abrogated IL-6-induced activation and nuclear translocation, but amplified constitutive serine phosphorylation of STAT3. Both effects were restricted to a fraction of cells only, in an all-or-none fashion. A partial overlap could be observed between the affected subpopulations; however, no direct connection could be proven. This study is the first proof on a cell-by-cell basis for the opposing effects of a microtubule-targeting agent on the two types of STAT3 phosphorylation.

Phytochemistry and pharmacology of alkaloids from Glaucium spp

Glaucium Mill. comprising 28 species with 78 synonyms, 3 subspecies, and 3 varieties worldwide belongs to the Papaveraceae family. The plants are well known for their different types of alkaloids. In the present study, we attempted to review the chemistry and pharmacology of the alkaloids from the genus Glaucium. For this purpose, the relevant data were collected from different scientific databases including, "Google Scholar", "ISI Web of Knowledge", "PubMed", "Scopus", and available books and e-books. Our results showed that aporphine alkaloids are dominated in the species; however, other types of alkaloids including protopines, benzophenanthridines, benzylisoquinolines, protoberberines, and morphinanes have also been reported from the genus. The pharmacological studies have shown that the alkaloids from Glaucium species have several biological activities of which anti-cancer and anti-cholinesterase effects have been highly reported. Besides, the data indicated that most of the species have been investigated neither phytochemically nor pharmacologically. Glaucium flavum, known as yellow horn poppy, is the most studied species. According to the reports, the plants from this genus have anti-cancer and anti-cholinesterase potentials and can be used as a source for aporphine alkaloids.

Combined Protein and Alkaloid Research of Chelidonium majus Latex Reveals CmMLP1 Accompanied by Alkaloids with Cytotoxic Potential to Human Cervical Carcinoma Cells

Chelidonium majus L. is a latex-bearing plant used in traditional folk medicine to treat human papillomavirus (HPV)-caused warts, papillae, and condylomas. Its latex and extracts are rich in many low-molecular compounds and proteins, but there is little or no information on their potential interaction. We describe the isolation and identification of a novel major latex protein (CmMLP1) composed of 147 amino acids and present a model of its structure containing a conserved hydrophobic cavity with high affinity to berberine, 8-hydroxycheleritrine, and dihydroberberine. CmMLP1 and the accompanying three alkaloids were present in the eluted chromatographic fractions of latex. They decreased in vitro viability of human cervical cancer cells (HPV-negative and HPV-positive). We combined, for the first time, research on macromolecular and low-molecular-weight compounds of latex-bearing plants in contrast to other studies that investigated proteins and alkaloids separately. The observed interaction between latex protein and alkaloids may influence our knowledge on plant defense. The proposed toolbox may help in further understanding of plant disease resistance and in pharmacological research.

Plant isoquinoline alkaloids: Advances in the chemistry and biology of berberine

Alkaloids are one of the most important classes of plant bioactives. Among these isoquinoline alkaloids possess varied structures and exhibit numerous biological activities. Basically these are biosynthetically produced via phenylpropanoid pathway. However, occasionally some mixed pathways may also occur to provide structural divergence. Among the various biological activities anticancer, antidiabetic, antiinflammatory, and antimicrobial are important. A few notable bioactive isoquinoline alkaloids are antidiabetic berberine, anti-tussive codeine, analgesic morphine, and muscle relaxant papaverine etc. Berberine is one of the most discussed bioactives from this class possessing broad-spectrum pharmacological activities. Present review aims at recent updates of isoquinoline alkaloids with major emphasis on berberine, its detailed chemistry, important biological activities, structure activity relationship and implementation in future research.

The Anticancer Effect of Natural Plant Alkaloid Isoquinolines

Isoquinoline alkaloids-enriched herbal plants have been used as traditional folk medicine for their anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and analgesic effects. They induce cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, and autophagy, leading to cell death. While the molecular mechanisms of these effects are not fully understood, it has been suggested that binding to nucleic acids or proteins, enzyme inhibition, and epigenetic modulation by isoquinoline alkaloids may play a role in the effects. This review discusses recent evidence on the molecular mechanisms by which the isoquinoline alkaloids can be a therapeutic target of cancer treatment.

Chelidonine Induces Apoptosis via GADD45a-p53 Regulation in Human Pancreatic Cancer Cells

Chelidonium majus has been used as a traditional medicine in China and western countries for various diseases, including inflammation and cancer. However, the anti-cancer effect of chelidonine, a major compound of C. majus extracts, on pancreatic cancer remains poorly understood. In this study, we found that treatment with chelidonine inhibited proliferation of BxPC-3 and MIA PaCa-2 human pancreatic cancer cells. Annexin-V/propidium iodide staining assay showed that this growth inhibitory effect of chelidonine was induced through apoptosis. We found that chelidonine treatment upregulated mRNA levels and transcription factor activity in both cell lines. Increases in protein expression levels of p53, GADD45A, p21 and cleaved caspase-3 were also observed, with more distinct changes in MIA PaCa-2 cells compared to the BxPC-3 cells. These results suggest that chelidonine induces pancreatic cancer apoptosis through the p53 and GADD45A pathways. Our findings provide new insights into the use of chelidonine for the treatment of pancreatic cancer.

Biologically active isoquinoline alkaloids covering 2014-2018

Isoquinoline alkaloids, an important class of N-based heterocyclic compounds, have attracted considerable attention from researchers worldwide since the early 19th century. Over the past 200 years, many compounds from this class were isolated, and most of them and their analogs possess various bioactivities. In this review, we survey the updated literature on bioactive alkaloids and highlight research achievements of this alkaloid class during the period of 2014-2018. We reviewed over 400 molecules with a broad range of bioactivities, including antitumor, antidiabetic and its complications, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antiparasitic, insecticidal, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, neuroprotective, and other activities. This review should provide new indications or directions for the discovery of new and better drugs from the original naturally occurring isoquinoline alkaloids.

Molecular mechanisms and therapeutic implications of tetrandrine and cepharanthine in T cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia and autoimmune diseases

Inappropriately activated T cells mediate autoimmune diseases and T cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL). Glucocorticoid and chemotherapeutic agents have largely extended lives of these patients. However, serious side effects and drug resistance often limit the prognosis of considerable number of the patients. The efficient treatment of autoimmune diseases or T-ALL with drug resistance remains an important unmet demand clinically. Bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloids tetrandrine and cepharanthine have been applied for the treatment of certain types of autoimmune diseases and cancers, while studies on their action mechanisms and their further applications combined with glucocorticoids or chemotherapeutic agents remains to be expanded. This review introduced molecular mechanisms of tetrandrine and cepharanthine in T cells, including their therapeutic implications. Both tetrandrine and cepharnthine influence the growth of activated T cells via several kinds of signaling pathways, such as NF-κB, caspase cascades, cell cycle, MAPK, and PI3K/Akt/mTOR. According to recent preclinical and clinical studies, P-glycoprotein inhibitory effect of tetrandrine and cepharnthine could play a significant role on T cell-involved refractory diseases. Therefore, tetrandrine or cepharanthine combined with glucocorticoid or other anti-leukemia drugs would bring a new hope for patients with glucocorticoid-resistant autoimmune disease or refractory T-ALL accompanied with functional P-glycoprotein. In conclusion, bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloids tetrandrine and cepharanthine can regulate several signaling pathways in abnormally activated T cells with low toxicity. Bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloids deserve to be paid more attention as a lead compound to develop new drugs for the treatment of T cell-involved diseases in the future.

Chelidonine selectively inhibits the growth of gefitinib-resistant non-small cell lung cancer cells through the EGFR-AMPK pathway

Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) have been widely used for the clinical treatment of patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) harboring mutations in the EGFR. Unfortunately, due to the secondary mutation in EGFR, eventual drug-resistance is inevitable. Therefore, to overcome the resistance, new agent is urgently required. Chelidonine, extracted from the roots of Chelidonium majus, was proved to effectively suppress the growth of NSCLC cells with EGFR double mutation. Proteomics analysis indicated that mitochondrial respiratory chain was significantly inhibited by chelidonine, and inhibitor of AMPK effectively blocked the apoptosis induced by chelidonine. Molecular dynamics simulations indicated that chelidonine could directly bind to EGFR and showed a much higher binding affinity to EGFR^L858R/T790M than EGFR^WT, which demonstrated that chelidonine could selectively inhibit the phosphorylation of EGFR in cells with EGFR double-mutation. In vivo study revealed that chelidonine has a similar inhibitory effect like second generation TKI Afatinib. In conclusion, targeting EGFR and inhibition of mitochondrial function is a promising anti-cancer therapeutic strategy for inhibiting NSCLC with EGFR mutation and TKI resistance.

Design, synthesis and apoptosis-related antiproliferative activities of chelidonine derivatives

To get chelidonine derivatives with enhanced antiproliferative activity and selectivity, a series of nitric oxide donating derivatives (10a-f and 11a-j) were designed, synthesized and biologically evaluated. Compared with chelidonine, these compounds exhibited lower IC₅₀ values against human hepatoma cells HepG2, breast cancer cells MCF-7, colon cancer cells HCT-116, as well as leukemia cells K562. Compound 11j displayed the strongest antiproliferative activity with IC₅₀ values of 3.91, 6.90, 4.36 and 1.12 μM against the above four cells, respectively. Nevertheless, it showed an IC₅₀ value >40 μM against human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), which demonstrated high selectivity between normal and cancer blood cells. In further mechanism studies, 11j showed the capability to induce K562 cells apoptosis, S phase cell cycle arrest and mitochondrial membrane potential disorder. Besides, 11j was found to be effective in promoting the expression of proapoptotic protein Bad and suppressing the expression of anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl-xL, catalase, survivin, claspin and clusterin.

Real-time cell analysis system in cytotoxicity applications: Usefulness and comparison with tetrazolium salt assays

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RTCA system allows to easily monitor cell adhesion and proliferation.

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The real-time impedance technique is widely used in many toxicological studies.

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RTCA results are generally comparable with results from tetrazolium salts assays.

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RTCA analysis should be limited when drugs with electroactive additives are tested.

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Tetrazolium salts assays should be avoided when colored compounds are studied.

Real-time cell analysis (RTCA) is a technique based on impedance and microsensor electrodes. RTCA system allows label-free, real-time, and continuous monitoring of cell adhesion, morphology, and rate of cell proliferation. The system offers a wide range of applications, mainly in toxicological studies, new drug screening, and microbiology. Here, we describe the usefulness of the system in different applications and compare this technology with conventional endpoint assays based on tetrazolium salts. We present advantages and disadvantages of the system and endpoint methods and their limitations in cytotoxicity investigations.

Harnessing the Power of Optical Microscopic and Macroscopic Imaging for Natural Products as Cancer Therapeutics

Natural products (NPs) are an important source for new drug discovery over the past decades, which have been demonstrated to be effectively used in cancer prevention, treatment, and adjuvant therapy. Many methods, such as the genomic and metabolomic approaches, immunochemistry, mass spectrometry, and chromatography, have been used to study the effects of NPs on cancer as well as themselves. Because of the advantages in specificity, sensitivity, high throughput, and cost-effectiveness, optical imaging (OI) approaches, including optical microscopic imaging and macroscopic imaging techniques have also been applied in the studies of NPs. Optical microscopic imaging can observe NPs as cancer therapeutics at the cellular level and analyze its cytotoxicity and mechanism of action. Optical macroscopic imaging observes the distribution, metabolic pathway, and target lesions of NPs in vivo, and evaluates NPs as cancer therapeutics at the whole-body level in small living animals. This review focuses on the recent advances in NPs as cancer therapeutics, with particular emphasis on the powerful use of optical microscopic and macroscopic imaging techniques, including the studies of observation of ingestion by cells, anticancer mechanism, and in vivo delivery. Finally, we prospect the wider application and future potential of OI approaches in NPs as cancer therapeutics.

New lignanamides and alkaloids from Chelidonium majus and their anti-inflammation activity

Two new lignanamides, majusamides A and B (1 and 2), and two new alkaloids, chelidoniumine (3) and tetrahydrocoptisine N-oxide (4), together with six known hydroxycinnamic acid amides (HCCA) were isolated from the 75% ethanol extract of Chelidonium majus through the silica gel, Sephadex LH-20, MCI, ODS column chromatography, and semi-HPLC. Their structures were determined on the basis of spectroscopic data and physico-chemical methods. The absolute configurations of 1-3 were determined by electronic circular dichroism (ECD) calculations. The anti-inflammatory activities of all the isolates on the NO production in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced macrophages were evaluated. Compounds 7 and 9 exhibited moderate inhibitory activity with IC₅₀ values of 25.3 ± 0.5 and 23.5 ± 1.7 μM, respectively.

Chelidonine enhances the antitumor effect of lenvatinib on hepatocellular carcinoma cells

Background

Lenvatinib is a newly approved molecular targeted drug for the treatment of advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the high cost associated with this treatment poses a huge financial burden on patients and the entire public health system. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop novel strategies that enhance the antitumor effect of lenvatinib.

Methods

The antitumor effects of chelidonine or/and lenvatinib on HCC cell lines MHCC97-H and LM-3 were examined using the 3-[4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl]-2,5-diphenyl-2- H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. For the in-vivo investigation, the effect on subcutaneous or intrahepatic tumor growth in nude mice was also determined. The mRNA levels of epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT)-related factors were examined through quantitative polymerase chain reaction or Western blot.

Results

In the present study, we found that treatment with chelidonine enhanced the apoptotic effect of lenvatinib on HCC cells and the in-vivo growth of HCC tumors in nude mice. Mechanistically, treatment with chelidonine increased the expression of epithelial indicator E-cadherin, whereas it decreased the expression of mesenchymal indicators N-cadherin and Vimentin. These findings suggest that chelidonine restricted the EMT in HCC cells.

Conclusion

Chelidonine inhibits the process of EMT and enhances the antitumor effect of lenvatinib on HCC cells.

Effect of chelidonine on growth, invasion, angiogenesis and gene expression in head and neck cancer cell lines

The greater celandine 'Chelidonium majus' and its main alkaloid chelidonine have previously been shown to exert high cytotoxicity against cancer cells. Furthermore, chelidonine is proposed to possess pro-apoptotic and anti-metastatic properties. Within the present study, the effects chelidonine on several HNSCC cell lines, as well as primary cells, were analyzed with respect to growth, migration, angiogenesis and apoptosis. Chelidonine suppressed the growth of all tested HNSCC cell lines, including a paclitaxel-resistant and P-glycoprotein (MDR1) overexpressing cell line, but not in a clear dose-dependent manner. Mucosal keratinocytes were also strongly affected by chelidonine, while fibroblasts proved to be much more resistant. Chelidonine failed to trigger apoptosis at physiological concentrations in HNSCC cell lines. Based on a spheroid invasion model chelidonine suppressed invasion of FaDu cells effectively on gelatin, fibronectin, collagen I, laminin and Matrigel^®. However, invasion inhibition of the more aggressively invading cell line HLaC78 largely failed. Using the tube formation assay, chelidonine effectively inhibited angiogenesis. Expression analysis revealed an upregulation of the xenobiotic metabolism genes CYP1A1 and MDR1 by chelidonine. In summary, chelidonine appeared to exert only minor impact on head and neck cancer cells. Chelidonine did not produce clear dose-dependent and cell-type specific cytotoxicity nor did it trigger apoptosis strongly.

Greater Celandine's Ups and Downs-21 Centuries of Medicinal Uses of Chelidonium majus From the Viewpoint of Today's Pharmacology

As antique as Dioscorides era are the first records on using Chelidonium as a remedy to several sicknesses. Inspired by the "signatura rerum" principle and an apparent ancient folk tradition, various indications were given, such as anti-jaundice and cholagogue, pain-relieving, and quite often mentioned-ophthalmological problems. Central and Eastern European folk medicine has always been using this herb extensively. In this region, the plant is known under many unique vernacular names, especially in Slavonic languages, associated or not with old Greek relation to "chelidon"-the swallow. Typically for Papaveroidae subfamily, yellow-colored latex is produced in abundance and leaks intensely upon injury. Major pharmacologically relevant components, most of which were first isolated over a century ago, are isoquinoline alkaloids-berberine, chelerythrine, chelidonine, coptisine, sanguinarine. Modern pharmacology took interest in this herb but it has not ended up in gaining an officially approved and evidence-based herbal medicine status. On the contrary, the number of relevant studies and publications tended to drop. Recently, some controversial reports and sometimes insufficiently proven studies appeared, suggesting anticancer properties. Anticancer potential was in line with anecdotical knowledge spread in East European countries, however, in the absence of directly-acting cytostatic compounds, some other mechanisms might be involved. Other properties that could boost the interest in this herb are antimicrobial and antiviral activities. Being a common synanthropic weed or ruderal plant, C. majus spreads in all temperate Eurasia and acclimates well to North America. Little is known about the natural variation of bioactive metabolites, including several aforementioned isoquinoline alkaloids. In this review, we put together older and recent literature data on phytochemistry, pharmacology, and clinical studies on C. majus aiming at a critical evaluation of state-of-the-art from the viewpoint of historical and folk indications. The controversies around this herb, the safety and drug quality issues and a prospective role in phytotherapy are discussed as well.

Systematic Evaluation of Chromatographic Parameters for Isoquinoline Alkaloids on XB-C18 Core-Shell Column Using Different Mobile Phase Compositions

Chelidonium majus L. is a rich source of isoquinoline alkaloids with confirmed anti-inflammatory, choleretic, spasmolytic, antitumor, and antimicrobial activities. However, their chromatographic analysis is difficult because they may exist both in charged and uncharged forms and may result in the irregular peak shape and the decrease in chromatographic system efficacy. In the present work, the separation of main C. majus alkaloids was optimized using a new-generation XB-C18 endcapped core-shell column dedicated for analysis of alkaline compounds. The influence of organic modifier concentration, addition of salts, and pH of eluents on chromatographic parameters such as retention, resolution, chromatographic plate numbers, and peak asymmetry was investigated. The results were applied to elaborate the optimal chromatographic system for simultaneous quantification of seven alkaloids from the root, herb, and fruit of C. majus.

Chelidonine and Homochelidonine Induce Cell Death through Cell Cycle Checkpoints and MAP Kinase Pathways

This study focuses on the comparative in vitro cytotoxicity of chelidonine and homochelidonine on human cancer and non-cancer cells. Both alkaloids produced a decrease in cellular growth in a dose-dependent manner exhibiting greater potency in cancer cells. The growth inhibitory effect was evidenced in both ovarian carcinoma A2780 and lung fibroblast MRC-5 cells by inducing G2 and mitotic phase cell cycle arrest. Results indicated that the extent of apoptosis induced by chelidonine and homochelidonine was correlated to sensitivity to the antiproliferative activity of the evaluated compounds. Western blotting suggested that the cellular toxicological mechanism of chelidonine is related to the differential upregulation of phospho-Chk2, p21Cip1/Waf1, phospho-ERK1/2 and phospho-p38 in various cell types, leading to alternations in the suppression of proliferation and either induction or prevention of apoptosis. Chelidonine showed the more potent effects and also affected the cell cycle checkpoints and MAPK signaling pathways within cells.