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Sarkar P, Kumar A, Behera PS, Thirumurugan K. Phytotherapeutic targeting of the mitochondria in neurodegenerative disorders. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY AND STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2023; 136:415-455. [PMID: 37437986 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apcsb.2023.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/14/2023]
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases are characterized by degeneration or cellular atrophy within specific structures of the brain. Neurons are the major target of neurodegeneration. Neurons utilize 75-80% of the energy produced in the brain. This energy is either formed by utilizing the glucose provided by the cerebrovascular blood flow or by the in-house energy producers, mitochondria. Mitochondrial dysfunction has been associated with neurodegenerative diseases. But recently it has been noticed that neurodegenerative diseases are often associated with cerebrovascular diseases. Cerebral blood flow requires vasodilation which to an extent regulated by mitochondria. We hypothesize that when mitochondrial functioning is disrupted, it is not able to supply energy to the neurons. This disruption also affects cerebral blood flow, further reducing the possibilities of energy supply. Loss of sufficient energy leads to neuronal dysfunction, atrophy, and degeneration. In this chapter, we will discuss the metabolic modifications of mitochondria in aging-related neurological disorders and the potential of phytocompounds targeting them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priyanka Sarkar
- Structural Biology Lab, Pearl Research Park, School of Bio Sciences & Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Ashish Kumar
- Structural Biology Lab, Pearl Research Park, School of Bio Sciences & Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Partha Sarathi Behera
- Structural Biology Lab, Pearl Research Park, School of Bio Sciences & Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Kavitha Thirumurugan
- Structural Biology Lab, Pearl Research Park, School of Bio Sciences & Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India.
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Li RL, Wang LY, Duan HX, Zhang Q, Guo X, Wu C, Peng W. Regulation of mitochondrial dysfunction induced cell apoptosis is a potential therapeutic strategy for herbal medicine to treat neurodegenerative diseases. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:937289. [PMID: 36210852 PMCID: PMC9535092 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.937289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative disease is a progressive neurodegeneration caused by genetic and environmental factors. Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), and Huntington’s disease (HD) are the three most common neurodegenerative diseases clinically. Unfortunately, the incidence of neurodegenerative diseases is increasing year by year. However, the current available drugs have poor efficacy and large side effects, which brings a great burden to the patients and the society. Increasing evidence suggests that occurrence and development of the neurodegenerative diseases is closely related to the mitochondrial dysfunction, which can affect mitochondrial biogenesis, mitochondrial dynamics, as well as mitochondrial mitophagy. Through the disruption of mitochondrial homeostasis, nerve cells undergo varying degrees of apoptosis. Interestingly, it has been shown in recent years that the natural agents derived from herbal medicines are beneficial for prevention/treatment of neurodegenerative diseases via regulation of mitochondrial dysfunction. Therefore, in this review, we will focus on the potential therapeutic agents from herbal medicines for treating neurodegenerative diseases via suppressing apoptosis through regulation of mitochondrial dysfunction, in order to provide a foundation for the development of more candidate drugs for neurodegenerative diseases from herbal medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruo-Lan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Ling-Yu Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Hu-Xinyue Duan
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Qing Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiaohui Guo
- Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
- *Correspondence: Xiaohui Guo, ; Chunjie Wu, ; Wei Peng,
| | - Chunjie Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
- *Correspondence: Xiaohui Guo, ; Chunjie Wu, ; Wei Peng,
| | - Wei Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
- *Correspondence: Xiaohui Guo, ; Chunjie Wu, ; Wei Peng,
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Application of the adverse outcome pathway concept for investigating developmental neurotoxicity potential of Chinese herbal medicines by using human neural progenitor cells in vitro. Cell Biol Toxicol 2022; 39:319-343. [PMID: 35701726 PMCID: PMC10042984 DOI: 10.1007/s10565-022-09730-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Adverse outcome pathways (AOPs) are organized sequences of key events (KEs) that are triggered by a xenobiotic-induced molecular initiating event (MIE) and summit in an adverse outcome (AO) relevant to human or ecological health. The AOP framework causally connects toxicological mechanistic information with apical endpoints for application in regulatory sciences. AOPs are very useful to link endophenotypic, cellular endpoints in vitro to adverse health effects in vivo. In the field of in vitro developmental neurotoxicity (DNT), such cellular endpoints can be assessed using the human "Neurosphere Assay," which depicts different endophenotypes for a broad variety of neurodevelopmental KEs. Combining this model with large-scale transcriptomics, we evaluated DNT hazards of two selected Chinese herbal medicines (CHMs) Lei Gong Teng (LGT) and Tian Ma (TM), and provided further insight into their modes-of-action (MoA). LGT disrupted hNPC migration eliciting an exceptional migration endophenotype. Time-lapse microscopy and intervention studies indicated that LGT disturbs laminin-dependent cell adhesion. TM impaired oligodendrocyte differentiation in human but not rat NPCs and activated a gene expression network related to oxidative stress. The LGT results supported a previously published AOP on radial glia cell adhesion due to interference with integrin-laminin binding, while the results of TM exposure were incorporated into a novel putative, stressor-based AOP. This study demonstrates that the combination of phenotypic and transcriptomic analyses is a powerful tool to elucidate compounds' MoA and incorporate the results into novel or existing AOPs for a better perception of the DNT hazard in a regulatory context.
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Para-Hydroxybenzyl Alcohol Delays the Progression of Neurodegenerative Diseases in Models of Caenorhabditis elegans through Activating Multiple Cellular Protective Pathways. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2022; 2022:8986287. [PMID: 35401930 PMCID: PMC8989581 DOI: 10.1155/2022/8986287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Revised: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The traditional Chinese medicine Gastrodia elata (commonly called “Tianma” in Chinese) has been widely used in the treatment of rheumatism, epilepsy, paralysis, headache, and dizziness. Phenolic compounds, such as gastrodin, para-hydroxybenzyl alcohol (HBA), p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, and vanillin are the main bioactive components isolated from Gastrodia elata. These compounds not only are structurally related but also share similar pharmacological activities, such as antioxidative and anti-inflammatory activities, and effects on the treatment of aging-related diseases. Here, we investigated the effect of para-hydroxybenzyl alcohol (HBA) on neurodegenerative diseases and aging in models of Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans). Our results showed that HBA effectively delayed the progression of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease in models of C. elegans. In addition, HBA could increase the average lifespan of N2 worms by more than 25% and significantly improve the age-related physiological functions of worms. Moreover, HBA improved the survival rate of worms under stresses of oxidation, heat, and pathogenic bacteria. Further mechanistic investigation revealed that HBA could activate FOXO/DAF-16 and SKN-1 to regulate antioxidative and xenobiotic metabolism pathway. HBA could also activate HSF-1 to regulate proteostasis maintenance pathway, mitochondrial unfolded stress response, endoplasmic stress response and autophagy pathways. The above results suggest that HBA activated multiple cellular protective pathways to increase stress resistance and protect against aging and aging-related diseases. Overall, our study indicates that HBA is a potential candidate for future development of antiaging pharmaceutical application.
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Ambekar T, Pawar J, Rathod R, Patel M, Fernandes V, Kumar R, Singh SB, Khatri DK. Mitochondrial quality control: Epigenetic signatures and therapeutic strategies. Neurochem Int 2021; 148:105095. [PMID: 34111479 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2021.105095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Mitochondria are semi-autonomous organelle staging a crucial role in cellular stress response, energy metabolism and cell survival. Maintaining mitochondrial quality control is very important for its homeostasis. Pathological conditions such as oxidative stress and neurodegeneration, disrupt this quality control, and involvement of genetic and epigenetic materials in this disruption have been reported. These regulatory factors trigger mitochondrial imbalance, as seen in many neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Huntington's disease. The dynamic regulatory pathways i.e. mitophagy, biogenesis, permeability pore transitioning, fusion-fission are affected as a consequence and have been reviewed in this article. Moreover, several epigenetic mechanisms such as DNA methylation and histone modulation participating in such neurological disorders have also been discussed. Apart from it, therapeutic approaches targeting mitochondrial quality control have been tremendously explored showing ameliorative effects for these diseases, and have been discussed here with a novel perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanuja Ambekar
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Telangana, 500037, India
| | - Jyoti Pawar
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Telangana, 500037, India
| | - Ramdev Rathod
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Telangana, 500037, India
| | - Monica Patel
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Telangana, 500037, India
| | - Valencia Fernandes
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Telangana, 500037, India
| | - Rahul Kumar
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Telangana, 500037, India
| | - Shashi Bala Singh
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Telangana, 500037, India
| | - Dharmendra Kumar Khatri
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Telangana, 500037, India.
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Haider M, Salman M, Kaushik P, Bharadwaj N, Aggarwal NB, Tabassum H, Parvez S. Chrysin ameliorates 3 nitropropinoic acid induced neurotoxicity targeting behavioural, biochemical and histological alterations. Int J Neurosci 2020; 132:450-458. [DOI: 10.1080/00207454.2020.1821677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Madiha Haider
- Department of Medical Elementology and Toxicology, School of Chemical and Life Sciences, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India
| | - Mohd. Salman
- Department of Medical Elementology and Toxicology, School of Chemical and Life Sciences, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India
| | - Pooja Kaushik
- Department of Medical Elementology and Toxicology, School of Chemical and Life Sciences, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India
| | - Neha Bharadwaj
- Department of Medical Elementology and Toxicology, School of Chemical and Life Sciences, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India
| | - Nidhi Bharal Aggarwal
- Centre for Translational and Clinical Research, School of Chemical and Life Sciences, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India
| | - Heena Tabassum
- Division of Basic Medical Sciences, Indian Council of Medical Research, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, New Delhi, India
| | - Suhel Parvez
- Department of Medical Elementology and Toxicology, School of Chemical and Life Sciences, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India
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Chen CM, Chen WL, Hung CT, Lin TH, Lee MC, Chen IC, Lin CH, Chao CY, Wu YR, Chang KH, Hsieh-Li HM, Lee-Chen GJ. Shaoyao Gancao Tang (SG-Tang), a formulated Chinese medicine, reduces aggregation and exerts neuroprotection in spinocerebellar ataxia type 17 (SCA17) cell and mouse models. Aging (Albany NY) 2020; 11:986-1007. [PMID: 30760647 PMCID: PMC6382417 DOI: 10.18632/aging.101804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2018] [Accepted: 01/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA) type 17 is an autosomal dominant ataxia caused by expanded polyglutamine (polyQ) tract in the TATA-box binding protein (TBP). Substantial studies have shown involvement of compromised mitochondria biogenesis regulator peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma-coactivator 1 alpha (PGC-1α), nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2), nuclear factor-Y subunit A (NFYA), and their downstream target genes in the pathogenesis of polyQ-expansion diseases. The extracts of Paeonia lactiflora (P. lactiflora) and Glycyrrhiza uralensis (G. uralensis) have long been used as a Chinese herbal medicine (CHM). Shaoyao Gancao Tang (SG-Tang) is a formulated CHM made of P. lactiflora and G. uralensis at a 1:1 ratio. In the present study, we demonstrated the aggregate-inhibitory and anti-oxidative effect of SG-Tang in 293 TBP/Q79 cells. We then showed that SG-Tang reduced the aggregates and ameliorated the neurite outgrowth deficits in TBP/Q79 SH-SY5Y cells. SG-Tang upregulated expression levels of NFYA, PGC-1α, NRF2, and their downstream target genes in TBP/Q79 SH-SY5Y cells. Knock down of NFYA, PGC-1α, and NRF2 attenuated the neurite outgrowth promoting effect of SG-Tang on TBP/Q79 SH-SY5Y cells. Furthermore, SG-Tang inhibited aggregation and rescued motor-deficits in SCA17 mouse model. The study results suggest the potential of SG-Tang in treating SCA17 and probable other polyQ diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiung-Mei Chen
- Department of Neurology, Chang-Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang-Gung University College of Medicine, Taoyuan 33305, Taiwan
| | - Wan-Ling Chen
- Department of Neurology, Chang-Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang-Gung University College of Medicine, Taoyuan 33305, Taiwan
| | - Chen-Ting Hung
- Department of Life Science, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei 11677, Taiwan
| | - Te-Hsien Lin
- Department of Life Science, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei 11677, Taiwan
| | | | - I-Cheng Chen
- Department of Neurology, Chang-Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang-Gung University College of Medicine, Taoyuan 33305, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Hsin Lin
- Department of Neurology, Chang-Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang-Gung University College of Medicine, Taoyuan 33305, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Ying Chao
- Department of Neurology, Chang-Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang-Gung University College of Medicine, Taoyuan 33305, Taiwan
| | - Yih-Ru Wu
- Department of Neurology, Chang-Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang-Gung University College of Medicine, Taoyuan 33305, Taiwan
| | - Kuo-Hsuan Chang
- Department of Neurology, Chang-Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang-Gung University College of Medicine, Taoyuan 33305, Taiwan
| | - Hsiu Mei Hsieh-Li
- Department of Life Science, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei 11677, Taiwan
| | - Guey-Jen Lee-Chen
- Department of Life Science, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei 11677, Taiwan
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Proapoptotic effects of 2,5‑hexanedione on pheochromocytoma cells via oxidative injury. Mol Med Rep 2019; 20:3249-3255. [PMID: 31432125 PMCID: PMC6755188 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2019.10546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 07/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
N‑hexanes are prominent environmental pollutants that are able to cause neurotoxicity in vivo and in vitro. Central and peripheral neuropathies induced by n‑hexane exposure are a major health concern. 2,5‑Hexanedione (2,5‑HD) is the most significant neurotoxic metabolite of n‑hexane; however, little is known regarding the underlying mechanism of its neurotoxicity. Thus, the aim of the present study was to investigate the damaging effects of 2,5‑HD on pheochromocytoma PC12 cells, and to explore the underlying mechanism. Cell viability was tested using a Cell Counting Kit‑8 method, and the leakage of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) from cells was measured using an LDH assay kit. Glutathione peroxidase (GSHPx) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities, and the level of malondialdehyde (MDA) were determined using corresponding assay kits. Apoptotic cells were detected using an annexin V‑fluorescein isothiocyanate/propidium iodide (PI) apoptosis kit, and were subsequently observed by fluorescence microscopy. The relative expression levels of cleaved‑caspase‑3, Bcl‑associated‑X protein (Bax) and Bcl‑2 were identified by western blotting. The results revealed that 2,5‑HD was able to decrease the viability of PC12 cells and promoted the leakage of LDH in a concentrationdependent manner. Further analysis demonstrated that 2,5‑HD decreased the activity of the antioxidative enzymes, SOD and GSHPx, and led to an increase in the levels of MDA in the supernatant of cultured PC12 cells. The annexin V/PI staining results revealed that the numbers of apoptotic cells were increased following treatment with 2,5‑HD. In addition, 2,5‑HD (5 and 10 mmol/l) led to significant increases in the expression levels of caspase‑3 and Bax, with the concomitant downregulation of Bcl‑2. The antioxidant N‑acetylcysteine was identified to antagonize 2,5‑HD‑stimulated cleaved‑caspase‑3 and Bax upregulation, and Bcl‑2 downregulation. Collectively, the results of the present study suggested that 2,5‑HD exerts proapoptotic effects on PC12 cells via oxidative injury. These findings may be applied in the development of novel therapeutic strategies to treat neurological disorders associated with nhexane exposure.
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Tobore TO. Towards a comprehensive understanding of the contributions of mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of Huntington's disease. J Neurosci Res 2019; 97:1455-1468. [DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Revised: 06/06/2019] [Accepted: 06/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Huang NK, Lin CC, Lin YL, Huang CL, Chiou CT, Lee YC, Lee SY, Huang HT, Yang YC. Morphological control of mitochondria as the novel mechanism of Gastrodia elata in attenuating mutant huntingtin-induced protein aggregations. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2019; 59:152756. [PMID: 31004885 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2018.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2018] [Accepted: 11/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND According to Compendium of Materia Medica, Gastrodia elata (GE) Blume as a top grade and frequently prescribed herbal medicine has been used in treating dizziness, headaches, and epilepsy, indicating a neuroprotective effect. Because GE is capable of suppressing a hyperactive liver and thus calming endogenous wind, and because Huntington's disease (HD) can be classified as a phenomenon of disturbed liver wind, it is suggested that GE might be beneficial in treating HD. However, although current studies support GE for the prevention of diverse neurodegenerations such as HD, its detailed mechanisms remain elusive. PURPOSE To investigate the molecular mechanism of GE in preventing HD by focusing on mitochondrial morphology, which is highly associated with HD etiology and thus proposed as a therapeutic target of neurodegenerations. STUDY DESIGN/METHODS The overexpression of the mutant huntingtin (mHTT) gene in rat pheochromocytoma (PC12) cells was used as an in vitro cell model of HD. A filter retardation assay was applied to measure protein aggregations during HTT expression. Cotransfection with mitochondrial fusion and fission genes was used to test their relationships with HTT aggregates by monitoring with a confocal laser scanning microscope and filter retardation assay. Western blot analysis was used to estimate protein expression under different drug treatments or cotransfections with other related genes. RESULTS The overexpression of mutant but not normal HTT genes significantly resulted in protein aggregations in PC12 cells. GE dose-dependently attenuated mHTT-induced protein aggregations and free radical formations. GE significantly reversed mHTT-induced mitochondrial fragmentation and dysregulation of mitochondrial fusion and fission molecules. The overexpression of mitochondrial fusion genes attenuated mHTT-induced protein aggregations. Further, Mdivi-1, a DRP1 fission molecule inhibitor, significantly reversed mHTT-induced protein aggregations and mitochondrial fragmentation. CONCLUSION GE attenuated mHTT aggregations through the control of mitochondrial fusion and the fission pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nai-Kuei Huang
- National Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC; Program for Neural Regenerative Medicine, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Chung-Chih Lin
- Brain Research Center, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC; Department of Life Sciences and Institute of Genome Sciences, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC; Biophotonics Interdisciplinary Research Center, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Yun-Lian Lin
- School of Chinese Pharmaceutical Sciences and Chinese Medicine Resources, College of Biopharmaceutical and Food Sciences, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Chuen-Lin Huang
- Medical Research Center, Cardinal Tien Hospital, Hsintien, New Taipei City, Taiwan, ROC; Graduate Institute of Physiology & Department of Physiology and Biophysics, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Chun-Tang Chiou
- National Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Yi-Chao Lee
- Program for Neural Regenerative Medicine, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Shu-Yi Lee
- Department of Life Sciences and Institute of Genome Sciences, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Hung-Tse Huang
- National Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Ying-Chen Yang
- Department of Biotechnology and Animal Science, National Ilan University, Ilan, Taiwan, ROC.
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