Aqueous extract of Polygala japonica Houtt. ameliorated nonalcoholic steatohepatitis in mice through restoring the gut microbiota disorders and affecting the metabolites in feces and liver

Multi-omics integrated analyses indicated that non-polysaccharides of Sijunzi decoction ameliorated spleen deficiency syndrome via regulating microbiota-gut-metabolites axis and exerted synergistic compatibility

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

As a classical traditional Chinese medicine formula to invigorating spleen and replenishing qi, Sijunzi decoction (SJZD) is composed of four herbs, which is applied to cure spleen deficiency syndrome (SDS) clinically. The non-polysaccharides (NPSs) of SJZD (SJZD_NPS) are important pharmacodynamic material basis. However, the amelioration mechanism of SJZD_NPS on SDS has not been fully elaborated. Additionally, the contribution of herbs compatibility to efficacy of this formula remains unclear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim was to explore the underlying mechanisms of SJZD_NPS on improving SDS, and uncover the scientific connotation in SJZD compatibility.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A strategy integrating incomplete formulae (called "Chai-fang" in Chinese) comparison, pharmacodynamics, gut microbiome, and metabolome was employed to reveal the role of each herb to SJZD compatibility against SDS. Additionally, the underlying mechanism harbored by SJZD_NPS was further explored through targeted metabolomics, network pharmacology, molecular docking, pseudo-sterile model, and metagenomics.

RESULTS

SJZD_NPS significantly alleviated diarrhea, disordered secretion of gastrointestinal hormones and neurotransmitters, damage of ileal morphology and intestinal barrier in SDS rats, which was superior to the NPSs of Chai-fang. 16S rRNA gene sequencing and metabolomics analyses revealed that SJZD_NPS effectively restored the disturbed gut microbiota community and abnormal metabolism caused by SDS, showing the most evident recovery. Moreover, SJZD_NPS recalled the levels of partial amino acids, short chain fatty acids and bile acids, which possessed strong binding affinity towards potential targets. The depletion of gut microbiota confirmed that the SDS-amelioration efficacy of SJZD_NPS is dependent on the intact gut microbiome, with the relative abundance of potential probiotics such as Lactobacillus_johnsonii and Lactobacillus_taiwanensis been enriched.

CONCLUSION

NPSs in SJZD can improve SDS-induced gastrointestinal-nervous system dysfunction through regulating microbiota-gut-metabolites axis, with four herbs exerting synergistic effects, which indicated the compatibility rationality of SJZD.

From ancient wisdom to modern science: Gut microbiota sheds light on property theory of traditional Chinese medicine

The property theory of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been practiced for thousands of years, playing a pivotal role in the clinical application of TCM. While advancements in energy metabolism, chemical composition analysis, machine learning, ion current modeling, and supercritical fluid technology have provided valuable insight into how aspects of TCM property theory may be measured, these studies only capture specific aspects of TCM property theory in isolation, overlooking the holistic perspective inherent in TCM. To systematically investigate the modern interpretation of the TCM property theory from multidimensional perspectives, we consulted the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (2020 edition) to compile a list of Chinese materia medica (CMM). Then, using the Latin names of each CMM and gut microbiota as keywords, we searched the PubMed database for relevant research on gut microbiota and CMM. The regulatory patterns of different herbs on gut microbiota were then summarized from the perspectives of the four natures, the five flavors and the meridian tropism. In terms of the four natures, we found that warm-natured medicines promoted the colonization of specific beneficial bacteria, while cold-natured medicines boosted populations of some beneficial bacteria while suppressing pathogenic bacteria. Analysis of the five flavors revealed that sweet-flavored and bitter-flavored CMMs positively influenced beneficial bacteria while inhibiting harmful bacteria. CMMs with different meridian tropism exhibited complex modulative patterns on gut microbiota, with Jueyin (Liver) and Taiyin (Lung) meridian CMMs generally exerting a stronger effect. The gut microbiota may be a biological indicator for characterizing the TCM property theory, which not only enhances our understanding of classic TCM theory but also contributes to its scientific advancement and application in healthcare. Please cite this article as: Yang YN, Zhan JG, Cao Y, Wu CM. From ancient wisdom to modern science: Gut microbiota sheds light on property theory of traditional Chinese medicine. J Integr Med. 2024; Epub ahead of print.

Artemisia argyi ethanol extract ameliorates nonalcoholic steatohepatitis-induced liver fibrosis by modulating gut microbiota and hepatic signaling

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Artemisia argyi (AA), a herbal medicine traditionally used in Asian countries, to treat inflammatory conditions such as eczema, dermatitis, arthritis, allergic asthma and colitis. However, the mechanism of action of this plant with regard to hepatitis and other liver-related diseases is still unclear.

AIM

This study aimed to investigate the effects of AA ethanol extract on NASH-related fibrosis and gut microbiota in a choline-deficient, L-amino acid-defined, high-fat diet (CDAHFD)-induced mouse model.

METHODS

Male C57BL/6J mice were fed CDAHFD, with or without AA ethanol extract treatment. Biochemical markers, lipid profiles, hepatic mRNA expression levels of key genes, and the fibrosis area were assessed. In vitro, TGF-β-stimulated human hepatic stellate LX-2 cells and mouse primary hepatic stellate cells (mHSCs) were used to elucidate the effects of AA ethanol extract on fibrosis and steatosis. 16S rRNA sequencing, QIIME2, and PICRUST2 were employed to analyze gut microbial diversity, composition, and functional pathways.

RESULTS

Treatment with the AA ethanol extract improved plasma and liver lipid profiles, modulated hepatic mRNA expression levels of antioxidant, lipolytic, and fibrosis-related genes, and significantly reduced CDAHFD-induced hepatic fibrosis. Gut microbiota analysis revealed a marked decrease in Acetivibrio ethanolgignens abundance upon treatment with the AA ethanol extract, and its functional pathways were significantly correlated with NASH/fibrosis markers. The AA ethanol extract and its active components (jaceosidin, eupatilin, and chlorogenic acid) inhibited fibrosis-related markers in LX-2 and mHSC.

CONCLUSION

The AA ethanol extract exerted therapeutic effects on CDAHFD-induced liver disease by modulating NASH/fibrosis-related factors and gut microbiota composition. Notably, AA treatment reduced the abundance of the potentially profibrotic bacterium (A. ethanolgignens). These findings suggest that AA is a promising candidate for treating NASH-induced fibrosis.

Gynostemma pentaphyllum Extract Alleviates NASH in Mice: Exploration of Inflammation and Gut Microbiota

NASH (non-alcoholic steatohepatitis) is a severe liver disease characterized by hepatic chronic inflammation that can be associated with the gut microbiota. In this study, we explored the therapeutic effect of Gynostemma pentaphyllum extract (GPE), a Chinese herbal extract, on methionine- and choline-deficient (MCD) diet-induced NASH mice. Based on the peak area, the top ten compounds in GPE were hydroxylinolenic acid, rutin, hydroxylinoleic acid, vanillic acid, methyl vanillate, quercetin, pheophorbide A, protocatechuic acid, aurantiamide acetate, and iso-rhamnetin. We found that four weeks of GPE treatment alleviated hepatic confluent zone inflammation, hepatocyte lipid accumulation, and lipid peroxidation in the mouse model. According to the 16S rRNA gene V3-V4 region sequencing of the colonic contents, the gut microbiota structure of the mice was significantly changed after GPE supplementation. Especially, GPE enriched the abundance of potentially beneficial bacteria such as Akkerrmansia and decreased the abundance of opportunistic pathogens such as Klebsiella. Moreover, RNA sequencing revealed that the GPE group showed an anti-inflammatory liver characterized by the repression of the NF-kappa B signaling pathway compared with the MCD group. Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) also showed that GPE downregulated the pathogen-induced cytokine storm pathway, which was associated with inflammation. A high dose of GPE (HGPE) significantly downregulated the expression levels of the tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), myeloid differentiation factor 88 (Myd88), cluster of differentiation 14 (CD14), and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) genes, as verified by real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR). Our results suggested that the therapeutic potential of GPE for NASH mice may be related to improvements in the intestinal microenvironment and a reduction in liver inflammation.

Jingangteng capsules ameliorate liver lipid disorders in diabetic rats by regulating microflora imbalances, metabolic disorders, and farnesoid X receptor

BACKGROUND

The plant Smilax china L., also known as Jingangteng, is suspected of regulating glucose and lipid metabolism. Jingangteng capsules (JGTCs) are commonly used to treat gynecological inflammation in clinical practice. However, it is not clear whether JGTCs can regulate glucose and lipid metabolism, and the mechanism is unclear.

PURPOSE

To investigate the impact and mechanism of action of JGTCs on diabetes and liver lipid disorders in rats.

METHODS

The chemical constituents of JGTCs were examined using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. A high-fat diet and streptozotocin-induced diabetes model was used to evaluate anti-diabetic effects by assessing blood glucose and lipid levels and liver function. The mechanism was explored using fecal 16S rRNA gene sequencing and metabolomics profiling, reverse transcription-quantiative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), and Western blot analysis.

RESULTS

Thirty-three components were identified in JGTCs. The serological and histomorphological assays revealed that JGTC treatment reduced levels of blood glucose and lipids, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, and lipid accumulation in the liver of diabetic rats. According to 16S rDNA sequencing, JGTCs improved species richness and diversity in diabetic rats' intestinal flora and restored 22 dysregulated bacteria to control levels. Fecal metabolomics analysis showed that the altered fecal metabolites were rich in metabolites, such as histidine, taurine, low taurine, tryptophan, glycerophospholipid, and arginine. Serum metabolomics analysis indicated that serum metabolites were enriched in the metabolism of glycerophospholipids, fructose and mannose, galactose, linoleic acid, sphingolipids, histidine, valine, leucine and isoleucine biosynthesis, and tryptophan metabolism. Heatmaps revealed a strong correlation between metabolic parameters and gut microbial phylotypes. Molecular biology assays showed that JGTC treatment reversed the decreased expression of farnesoid X receptor (FXR) in the liver of diabetic rats and inhibited the expression of lipogenic genes (Srebp1c and FAS) as well as inflammation-related genes (interleukin (IL)-β, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and IL-6). Liver metabolomics analysis indicated that JGTC could significantly regulate a significant number of bile acid metabolites associated with FXR, such as glyco-beta-muricholic acid, glycocholic acid, tauro-beta-muricholic acid, and tauro-gamma-muricholic acid.

CONCLUSIONS

This was the first study to investigate the mechanisms of JGTCs' effects on liver lipid disorders in diabetic rats. JGTCs inhibited liver lipid accumulation and inflammatory responses in diabetic rats by affecting intestinal flora and metabolic disorders and regulating FXR-fat synthesis-related pathways to alleviate diabetic lipid disorders.

Mechanic evaluation of Wu-Mei-Pill on colitis-associated colorectal cancer: An integrated transcriptomics, metabolomics, and experimental validation study

BACKGROUND

Chronic intestinal inflammatory diseases play a crucial role in the onset of colorectal cancer (CRC). Effectively impeding the progression of colitis-associated colorectal cancer (CAC) can be instrumental in hindering CRC development. Wu-Mei-Pill (WMP), a formulation comprising various herbal extracts, is clinically employed for CAC treatment, yet the underlying mechanism of WMP's efficacy in CAC remains unclear. Our study firstly demonstrated the effects and mechanisms of WMP on transcriptional and metabolic levels based on integrated transcriptomics and untargeted metabolomics and relative experimental validations.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A CAC mouse model was established through a single injection of azoxymethane (AOM) followed by intermittent dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) intervention, with subsequent WMP administration. Initially, the therapeutic impact of WMP on the CAC model was assessed by observing survival rate, body weight change, colon length, tumor number, tumor load, and pathological changes in the colon tissue of CAC mice post-WMP intervention. Subsequently, differential genes and metabolites in the colorectal tissue of CAC mice following WMP intervention were identified through transcriptomics and non-targeted metabolomics. Finally, the influence of WMP on the peroxisome proliferator activated receptor (PPAR) pathway, Wnt pathway, and CC motif chemokine ligand 3 (CCL3)/ CC motif chemokine receptor 1 (CCR1) axis in CAC mice was verified through western blot, immunofluorescence, and ELISA based on the results of transcriptomics and non-targeted metabolomics.

RESULTS

WMP intervention enhanced survival, alleviated body weight loss, shortened colon length, tumor occurrence, and pathological changes in the colorectal tissue of CAC mice, such as glandular damage, tumourigenesis, and inflammatory cell infiltration. Transcriptomic and non-targeted metabolomic results revealed that WMP intervention up-regulated the expression of key regulatory mechanisms of fatty acid oxidation PPAR pathway-related genes (Pparg, Ppara, Cpt1a, and Acadm) and metabolites (L-carnitine and L-palmitoylcarnitine). Additionally, it down-regulated Wnt pathway-related genes (Wnt3, Axin2, Tcf7, Mmp7, Lgr5, Wnt5a, Fzd6, Wnt7b, Lef1, and Fzd10 etc.) and pro-inflammatory related genes (Il1b, Il6, Il17a, Ccl3, and Ccr1 etc.). Experimental validation demonstrated that WMP up-regulated PPAR pathway-related proteins [PPARγ, PPARα, carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1A (CPT1A), and acyl-CoA dehydrogenase medium chain (ACADM)] in the colorectal tissue of CAC mice. It also down-regulated Wnt pathway-related proteins [β-catenin, T-cell factor (TCF), lymphoid enhancer-binding factor (LEF), and matrix metallopeptidase 7 (MMP7)], inhibited the nuclear translocation of the key transcription factor β-catenin in the Wnt pathway, and suppressed epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) activation induced by the Wnt pathway (up-regulated E-cadherin and down-regulated Vimentin). Furthermore, WMP intervention reduced pro-inflammatory factors [interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and IL-17A] and decreased CCL3/CCR1 axis factors, including CCL3 protein levels and diminished F4/80+CCR1+ positive expressed cells.

CONCLUSION

WMP significantly inhibits CAC tumorigenesis by up-regulating PPARα-mediated fatty acid oxidation, inhibiting the Wnt signaling pathway-mediated EMT, and suppressing CCL3/CCR1-mediated inflammatory responses.

Chaihu Guizhi Ganjiang Decoction attenuates nonalcoholic steatohepatitis by enhancing intestinal barrier integrity and ameliorating PPARα mediated lipotoxicity

BACKGROUND

Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is a prominent cause of liver-related death that poses a threat to global health and is characterized by severe hepatic steatosis, lobular inflammation, and ballooning degeneration. To date, no Food and Drug Administration-approved medicine is commercially available. The Chaihu Guizhi Ganjiang Decoction (CGGD) shows potential curative effects on regulation of blood lipids and blood glucose, mitigation of organism inflammation, and amelioration of hepatic function. However, the overall regulatory mechanisms underlying its effects on NASH remain unclear.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to investigate the efficiency of CGGD on methionine- and choline-deficient (MCD)-induced NASH and unravel its underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

A NASH model of SD rats was established using an MCD diet for 8 weeks, and the efficacy of CGGD was evaluated based on hepatic lipid accumulation, inflammatory response, and fibrosis. The effects of CGGD on the intestinal barrier, metabolic profile, and differentially expressed genes (DEGs) profile were analyzed by integrating gut microbiota, metabolomics, and transcriptome sequencing to elucidate its mechanisms of action.

RESULTS

In MCD-induced NASH rats, pathological staining demonstrated that CGGD alleviated lipid accumulation, inflammatory cell infiltration, and fibrosis in the hepatic tissue. After CGGD administration, liver index, liver weight, serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) contents, liver triglycerides (TG), and free fatty acids (FFAs) were decreased, meanwhile, it down-regulated the level of proinflammatory mediators (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, MCP-1), and up-regulated the level of anti-inflammatory factors (IL-4, IL-10), and the expression of liver fibrosis markers TGFβ, Acta2, Col1a1 and Col1a2 were weakened. Mechanistically, CGGD treatment altered the diversity of intestinal flora, as evidenced by the depletion of Allobaculum, Blautia, norank_f_Erysipelotrichaceae, and enrichment of the probiotic genera Roseburia, Lactobacillus, Lachnoclostridium, etc. The colonic histopathological results indicated that the gut barrier damage recovered in the CGGD treatment group, and the expression levels of colonic short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs)-specific receptors FFAR2, FFAR3, and tight junction (TJs) proteins ZO-1, Occludin, Claudin-1 were increased compared with those in the model group. Further metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses suggested that CGGD mitigated the lipotoxicity caused by glycerophospholipid and eicosanoid metabolism disorders by decreasing the levels of PLA2G4A, LPCAT1, COX2, and LOX5. In addition, CGGD could activate the inhibitory lipotoxic transcription factor PPARα, regulate the proteins of FABP1, APOC2, APOA2, and LPL to promote fatty acid catabolism, and suppress the TLR4/MyD88/NFκB pathway to attenuate NASH.

CONCLUSION

Our study demonstrated that CGGD improved steatosis, inflammation, and fibrosis on NASH through enhancing intestinal barrier integrity and alleviating PPARα mediated lipotoxicity, which makes it an attractive candidate for potential new strategies for NASH prevention and treatment.

Examining the Pathogenesis of MAFLD and the Medicinal Properties of Natural Products from a Metabolic Perspective

Metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD), characterized primarily by hepatic steatosis, has become the most prevalent liver disease worldwide, affecting approximately two-fifths of the global population. The pathogenesis of MAFLD is extremely complex, and to date, there are no approved therapeutic drugs for clinical use. Considerable evidence indicates that various metabolic disorders play a pivotal role in the progression of MAFLD, including lipids, carbohydrates, amino acids, and micronutrients. In recent years, the medicinal properties of natural products have attracted widespread attention, and numerous studies have reported their efficacy in ameliorating metabolic disorders and subsequently alleviating MAFLD. This review aims to summarize the metabolic-associated pathological mechanisms of MAFLD, as well as the natural products that regulate metabolic pathways to alleviate MAFLD.

Hedan tablet ameliorated non-alcoholic steatohepatitis by moderating NF-κB and lipid metabolism-related pathways via regulating hepatic metabolites

Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is a severe form of fatty liver disease. If not treated, it can lead to liver damage, cirrhosis and even liver cancer. However, advances in treatment have remained relatively slow, and there is thus an urgent need to develop appropriate treatments. Hedan tablet (HDP) is used to treat metabolic syndrome. However, scientific understanding of the therapeutic effect of HDP on NASH remains limited. We used HDP to treat a methionine/choline-deficient diet-induced model of NASH in rats to elucidate the therapeutic effects of HDP on liver injury. In addition, we used untargeted metabolomics to investigate the effects of HDP on metabolites in liver of NASH rats, and further validated its effects on inflammation and lipid metabolism following screening for potential target pathways. HDP had considerable therapeutic, anti-oxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects on NASH. HDP could also alter the hepatic metabolites changed by NASH. Moreover, HDP considerable moderated NF-κB and lipid metabolism-related pathways. The present study found that HDP had remarkable therapeutic effects in NASH rats. The therapeutic efficacy of HDP in NASH mainly associated with regulation of NF-κB and lipid metabolism-related pathways via arachidonic acid metabolism, glycine-serine-threonine metabolism, as well as steroid hormone biosynthesis.

Dual-Stimuli-Responsive Gut Microbiota-Targeting Nitidine Chloride-CS/PT-NPs Improved Metabolic Status in NAFLD

Background and Purpose

Nitidine chloride (NC) is a botanical drug renowned for its potent anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, and hepatocellular carcinoma-inhibiting properties; however, its limited solubility poses challenges to its development and application. To address this issue, we have devised a colon-targeted delivery system (NC-CS/PT-NPs) aimed at modulating the dysbiosis of the gut microbiota by augmenting the interaction between NC and the intestinal microbiota, thereby exerting an effect against nonalcoholic fatty liver disease.

Methods

The NC-CS/PT-NPs were synthesized using the ion gel method. Subsequently, the particle size distribution, morphology, drug loading efficiency, and release behavior of the NC-CS/PT-NPs were characterized. Furthermore, the impact of NC-CS/PT-NPs on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) induced by a high-fat diet (HFD) in mice was investigated through serum biochemical analysis, ELISA, and histochemical staining. Additionally, the influence of NC-CS/PT-NPs on intestinal microbiota was analyzed using 16S rDNA gene sequencing.

Results

The nanoparticles prepared in this study have an average particle size of (255.9±5.10) nm, with an encapsulation rate of (72.83±2.13) % and a drug loading of (4.65±0.44) %. In vitro release experiments demonstrated that the cumulative release rate in the stomach and small intestine was lower than 22.0%, while it reached 66.75% in the colon. In vivo experiments conducted on HFD-induced NAFLD mice showed that treatment with NC-CS/PT-NPs inhibited weight gain, decreased serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST), Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and lipid levels, improved liver and intestinal inflammation, and altered the diversity of gut microbiota in mice.

Conclusion

This study provides new evidence for the treatment of NAFLD through the regulation of gut microbiota using active ingredients from traditional Chinese medicine.

Effects of plant natural products on metabolic-associated fatty liver disease and the underlying mechanisms: a narrative review with a focus on the modulation of the gut microbiota

Metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) is a chronic liver disease characterized by the excessive accumulation of fat in hepatocytes. However, due to the complex pathogenesis of MAFLD, there are no officially approved drugs for treatment. Therefore, there is an urgent need to find safe and effective anti-MAFLD drugs. Recently, the relationship between the gut microbiota and MAFLD has been widely recognized, and treating MAFLD by regulating the gut microbiota may be a new therapeutic strategy. Natural products, especially plant natural products, have attracted much attention in the treatment of MAFLD due to their multiple targets and pathways and few side effects. Moreover, the structure and function of the gut microbiota can be influenced by exposure to plant natural products. However, the effects of plant natural products on MAFLD through targeting of the gut microbiota and the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Based on the above information and to address the potential therapeutic role of plant natural products in MAFLD, we systematically summarize the effects and mechanisms of action of plant natural products in the prevention and treatment of MAFLD through targeting of the gut microbiota. This narrative review provides feasible ideas for further exploration of safer and more effective natural drugs for the prevention and treatment of MAFLD.

Integrated Analysis of Gut Microbiome and Adipose Transcriptome Reveals Beneficial Effects of Resistant Dextrin from Wheat Starch on Insulin Resistance in Kunming Mice

Systemic chronic inflammation is recognized as a significant contributor to the development of obesity-related insulin resistance. Previous studies have revealed the physiological benefits of resistant dextrin (RD), including obesity reduction, lower fasting glucose levels, and anti-inflammation. The present study investigated the effects of RD intervention on insulin resistance (IR) in Kunming mice, expounding the mechanisms through the gut microbiome and transcriptome of white adipose. In this eight-week study, we investigated changes in tissue weight, glucose-lipid metabolism levels, serum inflammation levels, and lesions of epididymal white adipose tissue (eWAT) evaluated via Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) staining. Moreover, we analyzed the gut microbiota composition and transcriptome of eWAT to assess the potential protective effects of RD intervention. Compared with a high-fat, high-sugar diet (HFHSD) group, the RD intervention significantly enhanced glucose homeostasis (e.g., AUC-OGTT, HOMA-IR, p < 0.001), and reduced lipid metabolism (e.g., TG, LDL-C, p < 0.001) and serum inflammation levels (e.g., IL-1β, IL-6, p < 0.001). The RD intervention also led to changes in the gut microbiota composition, with an increase in the abundance of probiotics (e.g., Parabacteroides, Faecalibaculum, and Muribaculum, p < 0.05) and a decrease in harmful bacteria (Colidextribacter, p < 0.05). Moreover, the RD intervention had a noticeable effect on the gene transcription profile of eWAT, and KEGG enrichment analysis revealed that differential genes were enriched in PI3K/AKT, AMPK, in glucose-lipid metabolism, and in the regulation of lipolysis in adipocytes signaling pathways. The findings demonstrated that RD not only ameliorated IR, but also remodeled the gut microbiota and modified the transcriptome profile of eWAT.