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Monari PK, Hammond ER, Zhao X, Maksimoski AN, Petric R, Malone CL, Riters LV, Marler CA. Conditioned preferences: Gated by experience, context, and endocrine systems. Horm Behav 2024; 161:105529. [PMID: 38492501 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2024.105529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Revised: 03/02/2024] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/18/2024]
Abstract
Central to the navigation of an ever-changing environment is the ability to form positive associations with places and conspecifics. The functions of location and social conditioned preferences are often studied independently, limiting our understanding of their interplay. Furthermore, a de-emphasis on natural functions of conditioned preferences has led to neurobiological interpretations separated from ecological context. By adopting a naturalistic and ethological perspective, we uncover complexities underlying the expression of conditioned preferences. Development of conditioned preferences is a combination of motivation, reward, associative learning, and context, including for social and spatial environments. Both social- and location-dependent reward-responsive behaviors and their conditioning rely on internal state-gating mechanisms that include neuroendocrine and hormone systems such as opioids, dopamine, testosterone, estradiol, and oxytocin. Such reinforced behavior emerges from mechanisms integrating past experience and current social and environmental conditions. Moreover, social context, environmental stimuli, and internal state gate and modulate motivation and learning via associative reward, shaping the conditioning process. We highlight research incorporating these concepts, focusing on the integration of social neuroendocrine mechanisms and behavioral conditioning. We explore three paradigms: 1) conditioned place preference, 2) conditioned social preference, and 3) social conditioned place preference. We highlight nonclassical species to emphasize the naturalistic applications of these conditioned preferences. To fully appreciate the complex integration of spatial and social information, future research must identify neural networks where endocrine systems exert influence on such behaviors. Such research promises to provide valuable insights into conditioned preferences within a broader naturalistic context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick K Monari
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Psychology, Madison, WI, USA.
| | - Emma R Hammond
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Psychology, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Xin Zhao
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Psychology, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Alyse N Maksimoski
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Integrative Biology, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Radmila Petric
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Psychology, Madison, WI, USA; Institute for the Environment, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Candice L Malone
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Psychology, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Lauren V Riters
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Integrative Biology, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Catherine A Marler
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Psychology, Madison, WI, USA; University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Integrative Biology, Madison, WI, USA.
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Behavioral, Neural, and Molecular Mechanisms of Conditioned Mate Preference: The Role of Opioids and First Experiences of Sexual Reward. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23168928. [PMID: 36012194 PMCID: PMC9409009 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23168928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2022] [Revised: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Although mechanisms of mate preference are thought to be relatively hard-wired, experience with appetitive and consummatory sexual reward has been shown to condition preferences for partner related cues and even objects that predict sexual reward. Here, we reviewed evidence from laboratory species and humans on sexually conditioned place, partner, and ejaculatory preferences in males and females, as well as the neurochemical, molecular, and epigenetic mechanisms putatively responsible. From a comprehensive review of the available data, we concluded that opioid transmission at μ opioid receptors forms the basis of sexual pleasure and reward, which then sensitizes dopamine, oxytocin, and vasopressin systems responsible for attention, arousal, and bonding, leading to cortical activation that creates awareness of attraction and desire. First experiences with sexual reward states follow a pattern of sexual imprinting, during which partner- and/or object-related cues become crystallized by conditioning into idiosyncratic “types” that are found sexually attractive and arousing. These mechanisms tie reward and reproduction together, blending proximate and ultimate causality in the maintenance of variability within a species.
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Ventura-Aquino E, Paredes RG. Sexual behavior in rodents: Where do we go from here? Horm Behav 2020; 118:104678. [PMID: 31927024 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2020.104678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2019] [Accepted: 01/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Hormones and Behavior was first published 50 years ago including some articles related to the hormonal regulation of sexual behavior in different species. Since then, this research field has produced outstanding discoveries that have contributed to our understanding of the control of sexual behavior. The refinement of classical techniques and the development of new experimental tools has opened the door to a new era of research that will allow us to understand different aspects of sexual behavior. It would also expand the possible extrapolation from animal models to understand human sexuality and its dysfunctions. In this review, we summarize some of the most recent findings about sexual behavior in both sexes including the refinement of classical methods of study with new approaches and questions as well as the development of new methods trying to explain mechanisms of action on motivational and consummatory elements of mating behavior. We also reviewed other aspects that modulate sexual behavior such as attractivity, olfactory signals and learning which model mate selection. Additionally, we described studies demonstrating that sexual behavior induces permanent brain modifications in neuronal circuits. Finally, we briefly describe recent contributions on animal models of human sexuality dysfunctions which, although with their own limitations, are under continuous refining.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Ventura-Aquino
- Escuela Nacional de Estudios Superiores, Unidad Juriquilla UNAM. Querétaro, Qro, Mexico
| | - Raúl G Paredes
- Instituto de Neurobiología, UNAM, Querétaro, Querétaro, Mexico; Escuela Nacional de Estudios Superiores, Unidad Juriquilla UNAM. Querétaro, Qro, Mexico.
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Mac Cionnaith CE, Lemay A, Gomez-Perales EL, Robert G, Cernik R, Brake WG, Pfaus JG. Fos expression is increased in oxytocin neurons of female rats with a sexually conditioned mate preference for an individual male rat. Horm Behav 2020; 117:104612. [PMID: 31647923 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2019.104612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2019] [Revised: 08/30/2019] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Evidence suggests an important role of Pavlovian learning in sexual partner selection. Female rats that experience paced copulation with a male scented with a neutral odor selectively solicit and receive ejaculations from the scented male relative to an unscented male. Exposure to the conditioned odor alone induces Fos protein in regions of the brain associated with sexual excitation. Here we tested whether female rats can be conditioned to show a sexual preference for an unscented male rat of the same strain. Female Long-Evans rats were given 10 copulatory trials with either a one-hole pacing divider or a four-hole pacing divider in a unilevel chamber with the same conspecific male (n = 16). Females were then given an open-field partner preference test with the paired male versus a novel male. After two reconditioning trials females were exposed to the partner or a novel male to induce Fos expression. Females that paced with the one-hole divider received the first ejaculation and more ejaculations overall from the paired compared to novel male. Fos immunoreactivity within oxytocin neurons in the PVN, mPOA, and VMH was increased in females with a preference that were exposed to the paired male. These data indicate that female rats can form selective sexual preferences for an individual conspecific and that their formation depends on the type of pacing during conditioning. These findings further suggest the involvement of oxytocin in the display of conditioned preferences. Thus, early copulatory experience appears to determine the mating strategy used by female rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Conall E Mac Cionnaith
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada.
| | - Alice Lemay
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada
| | - Eamonn L Gomez-Perales
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada
| | - Genevieve Robert
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada
| | - Rebecca Cernik
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada
| | - Wayne G Brake
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada
| | - James G Pfaus
- Centro de Investigaciones Cerebrales, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, VER 91193, Mexico
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Ménard S, Gelez H, Girard-Bériault F, Coria-Avila G, Pfaus JG. Differential role of oxytocin and vasopressin in the conditioned ejaculatory preference of the male rat. Physiol Behav 2019; 208:112577. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2019.112577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Revised: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Cavanaugh J, Mustoe A, Womack SL, French JA. Oxytocin modulates mate-guarding behavior in marmoset monkeys. Horm Behav 2018; 106:150-161. [PMID: 30342885 PMCID: PMC6298842 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2018.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Revised: 10/15/2018] [Accepted: 10/17/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
In socially-monogamous species, intolerance of interactions between a pairmate and a sexual rival (i.e., mate-guarding) promotes the preservation of long-lasting partnerships. One promising neurobiological candidate for the regulation of mate-guarding behavior in monogamous primates is the oxytocin (OT) system, given its established role in both the development of monogamous bonds and the behavioral processes that facilitate the preservation of those bonds. In this study, male and female marmosets were exposed to a same-sex intruder in their home environment during conditions when their pairmate was present and absent, and across three treatment conditions (OT receptor agonist; saline control; OT receptor antagonist). Saline-treated marmosets spent significantly more time in proximity to the intruder, relative to the empty pairmate enclosure, when their pairmate was absent. However, when marmosets received OT they spent less time in proximity to the intruder, indicating that OT may reduce interest in a same-sex stranger in a territorial context. When their pairmate was present, saline-treated marmosets spent equal time in proximity to both intruder and pairmate; yet when they received OT they spent significantly more time in proximity to the intruder, indicating that OT may increase interest in a same-sex stranger in a mate-guarding context. While OT treatment did not directly influence the expression of aggression, OT system manipulations impacted the expression of selective social interest during an intruder challenge, suggesting that OT may enhance adaptive responses to social challenges. Moreover, these findings add to the converging evidence that the OT system regulates behavioral processes that underlie the preservation of established relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon Cavanaugh
- Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska at Omaha, United States of America.
| | - Aaryn Mustoe
- Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska at Omaha, United States of America
| | - Stephanie L Womack
- Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska at Omaha, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey A French
- Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska at Omaha, United States of America; Department of Biology, University of Nebraska at Omaha, United States of America
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Inhibition of lysine-specific demethylase enzyme disrupts sexually conditioned mate guarding in the female rat. Physiol Behav 2018; 196:78-83. [PMID: 30138634 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2018] [Revised: 08/17/2018] [Accepted: 08/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Although female rats are typically described as having a promiscuous mating strategy, if sexually naïve females have their formative sexually rewarding experiences paired with the same male, they will recognize that male and display mate-guarding behavior towards him in the presence of a female competitor. Female rats that display mate guarding behavior also show enhanced activation of oxytocin and vasopressin neurons in the supraoptic and paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus. Here, we examined the potential role that histone demethylation might have in establishing this pair-bonded behavior, and whether the corresponding changes in oxytocin and vasopressin neuronal activation depended on demethylation. To accomplish this, we examined the effect of a lysine-specific demethylase-1 inhibitor to block the action of demethylase enzymes and maintain the methylation state of corresponding genes. Female rats treated with the demethylase inhibitor failed to show any measure of mate guarding, whereas females treated with vehicle displayed mate guarding behavior. Demethylase inhibitor treatment also blocked the ability of familiar male cues to activate oxytocin and vasopressin neurons, whereas vehicle-treated females showed this enhanced activation. These data indicate that histone demethylation is a crucial component in the epigenetic modification of neural circuitry that underlies conditioned mate guarding in female rats. These results are the first to demonstrate the role of histone demethylation underlying changes in mating strategy.
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Pfaus JG, Scardochio T, Parada M, Gerson C, Quintana GR, Coria-Avila GA. Do rats have orgasms? SOCIOAFFECTIVE NEUROSCIENCE & PSYCHOLOGY 2016; 6:31883. [PMID: 27799081 PMCID: PMC5087696 DOI: 10.3402/snp.v6.31883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2016] [Revised: 06/29/2016] [Accepted: 06/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although humans experience orgasms with a degree of statistical regularity, they remain among the most enigmatic of sexual responses; difficult to define and even more difficult to study empirically. The question of whether animals experience orgasms is hampered by similar lack of definition and the additional necessity of making inferences from behavioral responses. METHOD Here we define three behavioral criteria, based on dimensions of the subjective experience of human orgasms described by Mah and Binik, to infer orgasm-like responses (OLRs) in other species: 1) physiological criteria that include pelvic floor and anal muscle contractions that stimulate seminal emission and/or ejaculation in the male, or that stimulate uterine and cervical contractions in the female; 2) short-term behavioral changes that reflect immediate awareness of a pleasurable hedonic reward state during copulation; and 3) long-term behavioral changes that depend on the reward state induced by the OLR, including sexual satiety, the strengthening of patterns of sexual arousal and desire in subsequent copulations, and the generation of conditioned place and partner preferences for contextual and partner-related cues associated with the reward state. We then examine whether physiological and behavioral data from observations of male and female rats during copulation, and in sexually-conditioned place- and partner-preference paradigms, are consistent with these criteria. RESULTS Both male and female rats display behavioral patterns consistent with OLRs. CONCLUSIONS The ability to infer OLRs in rats offers new possibilities to study the phenomenon in neurobiological and molecular detail, and to provide both comparative and translational perspectives that would be useful for both basic and clinical research.
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Affiliation(s)
- James G Pfaus
- Department of Psychology, Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC, Canada;
| | - Tina Scardochio
- Department of Psychology, Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Mayte Parada
- Department of Psychology, Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC, Canada
- Laboratory for the Biopsychosocial Study of Sexuality, Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada
- Montréal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Christine Gerson
- Department of Psychology, Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Gonzalo R Quintana
- Department of Psychology, Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Genaro A Coria-Avila
- Centro de Investigaciones Cerebrales, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, VER, México
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Coria-Avila GA, Herrera-Covarrubias D, Ismail N, Pfaus JG. The role of orgasm in the development and shaping of partner preferences. SOCIOAFFECTIVE NEUROSCIENCE & PSYCHOLOGY 2016; 6:31815. [PMID: 27799080 PMCID: PMC5087697 DOI: 10.3402/snp.v6.31815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2016] [Revised: 07/04/2016] [Accepted: 07/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The effect of orgasm on the development and shaping of partner preferences may involve a catalysis of the neurochemical mechanisms of bonding. Therefore, understanding such process is relevant for neuroscience and psychology. METHODS A systematic review was carried out using the terms Orgasm, Sexual Reward, Partner Preference, Pair Bonding, Brain, Learning, Sex, Copulation. RESULTS In humans, concentrations of arousing neurotransmitters and potential bonding neurotransmitters increase during orgasm in the cerebrospinal fluid and the bloodstream. Similarly, studies in animals indicate that those neurotransmitters (noradrenaline, oxytocin, prolactin) and others (e.g. dopamine, opioids, serotonin) modulate the appetitive and consummatory phases of sexual behavior and reward. This suggests a link between the experience of orgasm/sexual reward and the neurochemical mechanisms of pair bonding. Orgasm/reward functions as an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). Some areas in the nervous system function as UCS-detection centers, which become activated during orgasm. Partner-related cues function as conditioned stimuli (CS) and are processed in CS-detector centers. CONCLUSIONS Throughout the article, we discuss how UCS- and CS-detection centers must interact to facilitate memory consolidation and produce recognition and motivation during future social encounters.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Deissy Herrera-Covarrubias
- Centro de Investigaciones Cerebrales, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, Mexico
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Nafissa Ismail
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - James G Pfaus
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Concordia University, Montréal, Canada
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Huzard D, Mumby DG, Sandi C, Poirier GL, van der Kooij MA. The effects of extrinsic stress on somatic markers and behavior are dependent on animal housing conditions. Physiol Behav 2015. [PMID: 26220463 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Properties of the environment play an important role in animal wellbeing and may modulate the effects of external threats. Whereas stressors can affect emotion and impair cognition, environmental enrichment may prevent the occurrence of such negative sequelae. Animals exposed to semi-natural group-housing experience a complex environment; whereas environmental enrichment might protect against stressors, a socially-enriched environment(SEE) could entail aggressive inter-male encounters with additive stress effects. In the present study, we investigated the effects of exposure to external stressors, footshocks and forced swimming, on adrenal gland and body weights as well as on behavior in rats housed under SEE or standard, non-enriched environment (NEE), conditions. We found that SEEs reduced the anxiogenic effects of stress. Moreover, SEEs improved the performance in an operant task and prevented the increase in impulsive behavior produced by external stressors on NEE animals. Whereas these findings are indicative of stress-buffering effects of SEEs, adrenal gland weights were increased while total body weights were decreased in SEE rats, suggesting that SEEs may simultaneously exacerbate physiological measurements of stress. Finally, in the SEE, total aggressive behaviors and body wounds were paradoxically reduced in animals that received external stressors in comparison to non-stressed controls. The consequences of the external stressors applied here are not uniform, varying according to the housing condition and the outcome considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damien Huzard
- Laboratory of Behavioral Genetics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne 1015, Switzerland; Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Dave G Mumby
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Carmen Sandi
- Laboratory of Behavioral Genetics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne 1015, Switzerland
| | - Guillaume L Poirier
- Laboratory of Behavioral Genetics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne 1015, Switzerland
| | - Michael A van der Kooij
- Laboratory of Behavioral Genetics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne 1015, Switzerland.
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Holley A, Bellevue S, Vosberg D, Wenzel K, Roorda S, Pfaus JG. The role of oxytocin and vasopressin in conditioned mate guarding behavior in the female rat. Physiol Behav 2015; 144:7-14. [PMID: 25724299 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.02.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2015] [Revised: 02/07/2015] [Accepted: 02/23/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
We have shown previously that female rats given their first copulatory experiences with the same male rat display mate guarding behavior in the presence of that male provided a female competitor is also present. Females given access to the familiar male show more Fos induction within regions of the brain that contain oxytocin (OT) and vasopressin (AVP) cell bodies, notably the supraoptic (SON) and paraventricular nuclei (PVN) relative to females given sexual experience with different males. The present experiments examined whether the Fos induction we previously observed within the SON and PVN occurred within OT and/or AVP neurons, and whether exogenous administration of OT or AVP prior to female rats first sexual experience could potentiate the acquisition of mate guarding behavior. Female rats that display conditioned mate guarding had significantly more double-labeled Fos/OT neurons in both SON and PVN, and significantly more Fos/AVP neurons in the PVN. Peripheral administration of OT or AVP prior to their first sexual experience with the familiar male facilitated different aspects of mate guarding: OT augmented affiliative behaviors and presenting responses whereas AVP augmented interference behavior. These results indicate that female rats' first experiences with sexual reward when paired with the same male induce changes to bonding networks in the brain. Moreover peripheral administration of OT or AVP during their first sexual experience can augment different aspects of mate guarding behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Holley
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC H4B 1R6 Canada.
| | - Shannon Bellevue
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC H4B 1R6 Canada
| | - Daniel Vosberg
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC H4B 1R6 Canada
| | - Kerstin Wenzel
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC H4B 1R6 Canada
| | - Sieger Roorda
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC H4B 1R6 Canada
| | - James G Pfaus
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC H4B 1R6 Canada
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