Cerebrolysin prevents sleep deprivation induced memory impairment and oxidative stress

Transdermal Delivery of Methotrexate Loaded in Chitosan Nanoparticles to Treat Rheumatoid Arthritis

INTRODUCTION

Methotrexate shows high efficiency in the treatment of Rheumatoid arthritis, but its adverse effects cannot be tolerated by many patients. Additionally, Methotrexate suffers from rapid clearance from blood. Polymeric nanoparticles were used to solve these problems including chitosan.

METHODS

Herein, a new nanoparticulate system to deliver Methotrexate (MTX) using chitosan nanoparticles (CS NPs) was developed to be used transdermally. CS NPs were prepared and characterized. The drug release was studied in vitro and ex vivo using rat skin. The drug performance in vivo was investigated on rats. Formulations were applied topically once a day on the paws and knee joints of arthritis rats for 6 weeks. Paw thickness was measured and synovial fluid samples were collected.

RESULTS

The results showed that CS NPs were monodispersed, and spherical with a size of 279.9 nm and a charge above ± 30mV. Further, 88.02% of MTX was entrapped in the NPs. CS NPs prolonged MTX release and enhanced its permeation (apparent permeability ⁓35.00cm/h) and retention (retention capacity ⁓12.01%) through rats' skin. The transdermal delivery of MTX-CS NPs improves the progress of the disease compared to free MTX, as reflected by the lower arthritic index values, lower proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6), and higher anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10) in the synovial fluid. Further, the oxidative stress activities were significantly higher in the group treated with the MTX-CS NPs, as indicated by GSH. Finally, MTX-CS NPs were more effective in reducing lipid peroxidation in synovial fluid.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, loading Methotrexate in chitosan nanoparticles controlled its release and enhance its effectiveness against rheumatoid when applied dermally.

REM sleep deprivation induced by the modified multi-platform method has detrimental effects on memory: A systematic review and meta-analysis

The modified multi-platform method (MMPM) is used to induce animal models of paradoxical sleep deprivation and impairs memory in rodents. However, variations in MMPM protocols have contributed to inconsistent conclusions across studies. This meta-analysis aimed to assess the variations of the MMPM and their effects on memory in rats and mice. A comprehensive search identified 60 studies, and 50 were included in our meta-analysis. Overall, the meta-analysis showed that the MMPM significantly reduced the percentage of time spent in target quadrants (I2 = 54 %, 95 % confidence interval [CI] = [-1.83, -1.18]) and the number of platform-area crossings (I2 = 26 %, 95 % CI = [-1.71, -1.07]) in the Morris water maze (MWM) and shortened the latency to entering the dark compartment in the passive avoidance task (I2 = 68 %, 95 % CI = [-1.36, -0.57]), but it increased the number of errors in the radial arm water maze (RAWM) (I2 = 59 %, 95 % CI = [1.29, 2.07]). Additionally, mice performed worse on the MWM, whereas rats performed worse on the passive avoidance task. More significant memory deficits were found in cross-learning and post-learning MMPM in the MWM and RAWM, respectively. This study provided evidence that the MMPM can be used in preclinical studies of memory deficits induced by paradoxical sleep deprivation.

Sleep deprivation enhances amyloid beta peptide, p-tau and serotonin in the brain: Neuroprotective effects of nanowired delivery of cerebrolysin with monoclonal antibodies to amyloid beta peptide, p-tau and serotonin

Sleep deprivation is quite frequent in military during combat, intelligence gathering or peacekeeping operations. Even one night of sleep deprivation leads to accumulation of amyloid beta peptide burden that would lead to precipitation of Alzheimer's disease over the years. Thus, efforts are needed to slow down or neutralize accumulation of amyloid beta peptide (AβP) and associated Alzheimer's disease brain pathology including phosphorylated tau (p-tau) within the brain fluid environment. Sleep deprivation also alters serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine) metabolism in the brain microenvironment and impair upregulation of several neurotrophic factors. Thus, blockade or neutralization of AβP, p-tau and serotonin in sleep deprivation may attenuate brain pathology. In this investigation this hypothesis is examined using nanodelivery of cerebrolysin- a balanced composition of several neurotrophic factors and active peptide fragments together with monoclonal antibodies against AβP, p-tau and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT). Our observations suggest that sleep deprivation induced pathophysiology is significantly reduced following nanodelivery of cerebrolysin together with monoclonal antibodies to AβP, p-tau and 5-HT, not reported earlier.

Sleep Deprivation-Induced Oxidative Stress in Rat Models: A Scoping Systematic Review

Sleep deprivation is highly prevalent in the modern world, possibly reaching epidemic proportions. While multiple theories regarding the roles of sleep exist (inactivity, energy conservation, restoration, brain plasticity and antioxidant), multiple unknowns still remain regarding the proposed antioxidant roles of sleep. The existing experimental evidence is often contradicting, with studies pointing both toward and against the presence of oxidative stress after sleep deprivation. The main goals of this review were to analyze the existing experimental data regarding the relationship between sleep deprivation and oxidative stress, to attempt to further clarify multiple aspects surrounding this relationship and to identify current knowledge gaps. Systematic searches were conducted in three major online databases for experimental studies performed on rat models with oxidative stress measurements, published between 2015 and 2022. A total of 54 studies were included in the review. Most results seem to point to changes in oxidative stress parameters after sleep deprivation, further suggesting an antioxidant role of sleep. Alterations in these parameters were observed in both paradoxical and total sleep deprivation protocols and in multiple rat strains. Furthermore, the effects of sleep deprivation seem to extend beyond the central nervous system, affecting multiple other body sites in the periphery. Sleep recovery seems to be characterized by an increased variability, with the presence of both normalizations in some parameters and long-lasting changes after sleep deprivation. Surprisingly, most studies revealed the presence of a stress response following sleep deprivation. However, the origin and the impact of the stress response during sleep deprivation remain somewhat unclear. While a definitive exclusion of the influence of the sleep deprivation protocol on the stress response is not possible, the available data seem to suggest that the observed stress response may be determined by sleep deprivation itself as opposed to the experimental conditions. Due to this fact, the observed oxidative changes could be attributed directly to sleep deprivation.

Post-COVID-19 Anosmia and Therapies: Stay Tuned for New Drugs to Sniff Out

Background: Anosmia is defined as the complete absence of olfactory function, which can be caused by a variety of causes, with upper respiratory tract infections being among the most frequent causes. Anosmia due to SARS-CoV-2 infection has attracted attention given its main role in symptomatology and the social impact of the pandemic. Methods: We conducted systematic research in a clinicaltrials.gov database to evaluate all active clinical trials worldwide regarding drug therapies in adult patients for anosmia following SARS-CoV-2 infection with the intention of identifying the nearby prospects to treat Anosmia. We use the following search terms: "Anosmia" AND "COVID-19" OR "SARS-CoV-2" OR "2019 novel coronavirus". Results: We found 18 active clinical trials that met our criteria: one phase 1, one phase 1-2, five phases 2, two phases 2-3, three phases 3, and six phases 4 studies were identified. The drug therapies that appear more effective and promising are PEA-LUT and Cerebrolysin. The other interesting drugs are 13-cis-retinoic acid plus aerosolized Vitamin D, dexamethasone, and corticosteroid nasal irrigation. Conclusions: COVID-19 has allowed us to highlight how much anosmia is an important and debilitating symptom for patients and, above all, to direct research to find a therapy aimed at curing the symptom, whether it derives from SARS-CoV-2 infection or other infections of the upper airways. Some of these therapies are very promising and are almost at the end of experimentation. They also provide hope in this field, which not addressed until recently.

Optimized approach for active peptides identification in Cerebrolysin by nanoLC-MS

Cerebrolysin (CBL) is a peptide-rich preparation made by hydrolysis and purified extraction of porcine brain. CBL contains various neuroprotective peptides, such as neurotrophic factor, nerve growth factor and ciliary neurotrophic factor, which can be used to treat neurodegenerative diseases. However, the active peptides in CBL had not been studied in depth. In this study, the following was carried out in order to investigate the active peptides in CBL. First, CBL samples were treated using organic reagents (acetonitrile and acetone) to precipitate the proteins and different solid phase extraction methods (MCX mixed-mode cartridges, C18 SPE cartridge columns and HILIC sorbent). Then the samples were analyzed using nanoLC-MS, followed by the identification of peptides using different sequence analysis software (PEAKS, pNovo and novor). Finally, bioinformatics analysis was performed to predict peptides with potential neuroprotective functions in CBL, such as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant peptides. Results showed that the number of peptides obtained by the MCX method coupled with PEAKS was the highest and the method was the most stable. Bioinformatic analysis of the detected peptides showed that two anti-inflammatory peptides (LLNLQPPPR and LSPSLRLP) and an antioxidant peptide (WPFPR) might be neuroprotective peptides in CBL. In addition, this study found that some peptides in CBL were present in myelin basic protein and tubulin beta chain. The results of this study for the detection of active peptides in CBL laid the foundation for the subsequent study of its active ingredients.

Tenuifolin ameliorates the sleep deprivation-induced cognitive deficits

Tenuifolin (TEN), a natural neuroprotective compound obtained from the Polygala tenuifolia Willd plant, has improved cognitive symptoms. However, the impact of TEN on memory impairments caused by sleep deprivation (SD) is unclear. Accordingly, the objective of this study was to investigate the mechanisms behind the preventative benefits of TEN on cognitive impairment caused by SD. TEN (10 and 20 mg/kg) and Huperzine A (0.1 mg/kg) were given to mice through oral gavage for 28 days during the SD process. The results indicate that TEN administrations improve short- and long-term memory impairments caused by SD in the Y-maze, object identification, and step-through tests. Moreover, TEN stimulated the generation of anti-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin-10), lowered the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, and interleukin-18), and activated microglia, improving antioxidant status in the hippocampus. TEN treatments significantly boosted the expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 and heme oxygenase-1 while considerably decreasing the expression of NOD-like receptor thermal protein domain associated protein 3 and caspase-1 p20. Additionally, TEN restored the downregulation of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor signaling cascade and the impaired hippocampal neurogenesis induced by SD. When considered collectively, our data suggest that TEN is a potentially effective neuroprotective agent for cognition dysfunction.

Impact of chronic sleep deprivation and sleep recovery on hippocampal oligodendrocytes, anxiety-like behavior, spatial learning and memory of rats

Sleep and its quality play an important role in memory, cognition, and quality of life. Sleep deprivation-induced changes in hippocampal neurons and behavior have been studied widely, in contrast, the extent of damage to oligodendrocytes have not been fully understood. The present study aims to investigate chronic sleep deprivation (CSD) and sleep recovery-induced changes in oligodendrocytes of the hippocampus, cognition, and behavior of rats. Male Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 48) were grouped as control, sham control (SC), CSD, and CSD+sleep recovery (CSD+SR) (n = 12/group). CSD and CSD+SR group rats were sleep deprived for 21-days. After CSD, the CSD+SR group rats sleep recovered for 21-days. Oxidative markers, CNPase+ve oligodendrocytes, CNPase intensity, and CNPase gene expression were measured in the hippocampus, and the anxiety-like behavior, spatial learning, and memory were assessed. The 21-days of CSD significantly (p < 0.001) increased oxidative stress and significantly (p < 0.001) reduced the number of CNPase+ve oligodendrocytes, CNPase intensity, and CNPase gene expression when compared to controls. The increased oxidative stress was correlated with reduced CNPase+ve oligodendrocytes, CNPase intensity, and CNPase gene expression (r = -0.9). In-line with cellular changes, an increased (p < 0.01) anxiety-like behavior and impaired spatial memory were observed in the CSD group compared to controls. The 21-days of sleep recovery significantly (p < 0.01) reduced oxidative stress and anxiety-like behavior, improved spatial memory, increased CNPase intensity and CNPase gene expression, and non-significant (p > 0.05) increase in CNPase+ve oligodendrocytes compared to CSD. Overall, the 21-days of CSD reduced the number of CNPase+ve oligodendrocytes in the hippocampus, increased anxiety, and impaired spatial memory in rats. Though the 21-day sleep recovery showed an improvement in all parameters, it was not sufficient to completely reverse the CSD-induced changes to the control level.

Cerebroprotein hydrolysate attenuates neurodegenerative changes in Alzheimer's mice model via ferroptosis pathway

Introduction: Cerebroprotein hydrolysate has been proven to improve cognitive function in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). We explored the safety and effectiveness of the clinical administration of oral cerebroprotein hydrolysate in AD, and possible mechanisms related to the neuronal ferroptosis pathway. Methods: Three-month-old male APP/PS1 double-transgenic mice were randomly divided into AD model (n = 8) and intervention (n = 8) groups. Eight non-transgenic wild-type (WT) C57 mice were used as age-matched controls. The experiments were started at the age of 6 months. The intervention group was then administered cerebroprotein hydrolysate nutrient solution (11.9 mg/kg/day) via chronic gavage, the other groups received an identical volume of distilled water. Behavioural experiments were performed after 90 days of continuous administration. Serum and hippocampal tissues were then collected for histomorphological observation, tau and p-tau expression, and ferroptosis markers analysis. Results: Cerebroprotein hydrolysate simplified movement trajectories and shortened escape latencies of APP/PS1 mice in the Morris water maze test. Neuronal morphologies were restored in hippocampal tissues on haematoxylin-eosin staining. In the AD-model group, Aβ protein and p-tau/tau expression levels were elevated, plasma Fe²⁺ and malondialdehyde levels were elevated, GXP4 protein expression and plasma glutathione levels declined than controls. All indices improved after cerebroprotein hydrolysate intervention. Conclusion: Cerebroprotein hydrolysate improves learning and memory function, alleviates neuronal damage, and reduces the deposition of pathological AD markers in AD mice, which may be related to the inhibition of neuronal ferroptosis.

Cerebrolysin Use in Patients with Liver Damage-A Translational Study

The treatment of acute life-threatening events in patients suffering from chronic pathologies is problematic, as physicians need to consider multisystemic drug effects. Regarding Cerebrolysin, a Sonic Hedgehog signaling pathway amplifier and one of the few approved neurotrophic treatments for stroke patients, concerns of excessive Hedgehog pathway activation that could accelerate NAFLD progression to cirrhosis seem valid. We investigated stroke patients treated with Cerebrolysin that presented elevated levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and/or alanine aminotransferase (ALT). We also investigated the efficiency of Cerebrolysin in reversing the neurogenesis inhibition within the hippocampus in a mouse model of NAFLD by evaluating behavior and histological outcomes. NeuN, BrdU and Iba1 positive signals in the cortex and hippocampus of the animals were also observed. Clinically, Cerebrolysin improved AST levels in a majority of stroke patients with hepatic damage. The same treatment in an experimental setup was able to reverse anxiety-like behavior in MCD mice, reducing their freezing time from 333.61 ± 21.81 s in MCD animals to 229.17 ± 26.28 in treated ones. The use of Cerebrolysin did not improve short-term memory nor rescued cell multiplication in the hippocampus after MCD food intake. Understanding the neuroprotective and neurotrophic effects that drugs have on NAFLD patients can significantly contribute to a suitable therapeutic approach.

Soy isoflavones protects against cognitive deficits induced by chronic sleep deprivation via alleviating oxidative stress and suppressing neuroinflammation

Mounting evidence suggests that there is a close association between chronic sleep deprivation (CSD) and cognitive deficits. The animal model of CSD-induced cognitive deficits is commonly used to seek potential treatments. Soy isoflavones (SI) have been reported to possess antioxidant, anti-inflammation, and neuroprotective effects. In the present study, the effects of SI on CSD-induced memory impairment were investigated. The mice were subjected to the sleep interruption apparatus and continuously sleep deprived for 2 weeks, while orally administrated with SI (10, 20, and 40 mg/kg) or Modafinil (MOD,100 mg/kg) during the CSD process. Immediately after the SD protocol, cognitive performance of mice was evaluated by the object location recognition (OLR) test, the novel object recognition (NOR) test, and the Morris water maze (MWM) task, as well as the hippocampus, was extracted for evaluation of oxidative stress parameters and inflammation levels through biochemical parameter assay and western blotting analysis. The results showed that SI administration remarkably improved the cognitive performance of CSD-treated mice in OLR, NOR, and MWM tests. In addition, SI significantly elevated total antioxidant capacity and superoxide dismutase enzyme activities, decreased malondialdehyde level, promoting antioxidant element nuclear erythroid-2-related factor 2, and its downstream targets, including heme oxygenase 1, and quinone oxidoreductase 1 protein expressions. Moreover, SI treatment significantly suppressed nuclear factor kappa B p65, nitric oxide synthase, and cyclooxygenase 2 activation, as well as the pro-inflammatory cytokines (Tumor necrosis factor-α [TNF-α], interleukin-6 [IL-6], and interleukin-1β [IL-1β]) release in the hippocampus of CSD-treated mice. In summary, the current study provides an insight into the potential of SI in treatment of cognitive deficits by CSD.

Evaluating the effect of selenium on spatial memory impairment induced by sleep deprivation

Sleep deprivation (SD) impairs memory due to disturbing oxidative stress parameters. Selenium is a main component of several antioxidant enzymes and provides a neuroprotective effect. The present study aimed to investigate the potential neuroprotective effect of chronic selenium administration on cognitive impairments induced by chronic SD. Adult male Wister rats were randomly assigned into five groups (n = 12/group). The SD was induced in rats using modified multiple platform model. Selenium (6 µg/kg of animal's body weight) was administered to rats via oral gavage for 6 weeks. The spatial learning and memory were assessed using the radial arm water maze (RAWM). Moreover, we measured the levels of reduced glutathione (GSH), oxidized glutathione (GSSG) and GSH/GSSG, catalase, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), superoxide dismutase (SOD), thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the hippocampus. The results indicate that short- and long-term memory were impaired by chronic sleep deprivation (P < 0.05), while selenium administration prevented this effect. Moreover, selenium normalized antioxidants activities which were reduced by SD such as: catalase (P < 0.05), and SOD (P < 0.05), and significantly enhanced the ratio of GSH/GSSG in sleep-deprived rats (P < 0.05), without significant alteration of BDNF (P > 0.05), GSH (P > 0.05), or TBARS levels (P > 0.05). In conclusion, chronic SD induced memory impairment, and chronic treatment with selenium prevented this impairment by normalizing antioxidant enzymes activities in the hippocampus.

Pretreatment with combined low-level laser therapy and methylene blue improves learning and memory in sleep-deprived mice

Low-level laser therapy (LLLT) and methylene blue (MB) were proved to have neuroprotective effects. In this study, we evaluated the preventive effects of LLLT and MB alone and in combination to examine their efficacy against sleep deprivation (SD)-induced cognitive impairment. Sixty Balb/c male mice were randomly divided into five groups as follows: wide platform (WP), SD, LLLT, MB, LMB (treatment with both LLLT and MB). Daily MB (0.5 mg/kg) was injected for ten consecutive days. An 810-nm, 10-Hz pulsed laser was used in LLLT every other day. We used the T-maze test, social interaction test (SIT), and shuttle box to assess learning and memory and PSD-95, GAP-43, and synaptophysin (SYN) markers to examine synaptic proteins levels in the hippocampus. Our results showed that SD decreased alternation rate in the T-maze test, sociability and social novelty in SIT, and memory index in the shuttle box. Single treatments were not able to reverse these in most of the behavioral parameters. However, behavioral tests showed a significant difference between combined therapy and the SD group. The levels of synaptic plasticity markers were also significantly reduced after SD. There was a significant difference between the MB group and SD animals in GAP-43 and SYN biomarkers. Combination treatment with LLLT and MB also increased GAP-43, PSD-95, and SYN compared to the SD group. We found that the combined use of LLLT and MB pretreatment is more effective in protecting SD-induced cognitive impairment, which may be imparted via modulation of synaptic proteins.

Modulating role of serotonergic signaling in sleep and memory

Serotonin is an important neurotransmitter with various receptors and wide-range effects on physiological processes and cognitive functions including sleep, learning, and memory. In this review study, we aimed to discuss the role of serotonergic receptors in modulating sleep-wake cycle, and learning and memory function. Furthermore, we mentioned to sleep deprivation, its effects on memory function, and the potential interaction with serotonin. Although there are thousands of research articles focusing on the relationship between sleep and serotonin; however, the pattern of serotonergic function in sleep deprivation is inconsistent and it seems that serotonin has not a certain role in the effects of sleep deprivation on memory function. Also, we found that the injection type of serotonergic agents (systemic or local), the doses of these drugs (dose-dependent effects), and up- or down-regulation of serotonergic receptors during training with various memory tasks are important issues that can be involved in the effects of serotonergic signaling on sleep-wake cycle, memory function, and sleep deprivation-induced memory impairments. This comprehensive review was conducted in the PubMed, Scopus, and ScienceDirect databases in June and July 2021, by searching keywords sleep, sleep deprivation, memory, and serotonin.

The effects of glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist (exenatide) on memory impairment, and anxiety- and depression-like behavior induced by REM sleep deprivation

Previous investigations have shown that REM sleep deprivation impairs the hippocampus-dependent memory, long-term potentiation and causing mood changes. The aim of the present study was to explore the effects of exenatide on memory performance, anxiety- and depression like behavior, oxidative stress markers, and synaptic protein levels in REM sleep deprived rats. A total of 40 male Wistar rats were randomly divided to control, exenatide-treated control, sleep deprivation (SD), wide platform (WP) and exenatide-treated SD groups. During experiments, exenatide treatment (0.5 μg/kg, subcutaneously) was applied daily in a single dose for 9 days. Modified multiple platform method was employed to generate REM sleep deprivation for 72 h. The Morris water maze test was used to assess memory performance. Anxiety- and depression-like behaviors were evaluated by open field test (OFT), elevated plus maze (EPM) forced swimming test (FST), respectively 72 h after REMSD. The levels of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) and postsynaptic density proteins 95 (PSD95) were measured in tissues of hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. The content of malondialdehyde (MDA) and reduced glutathione (GSH) were also measured. In the present study, an impairment in memory was observed in SD rats at the 24th hour of SD in compare to those of other groups. REMSD increased depression-like behavior in FST as well as the number of rearing and crossing square in OFT. Anxiety is the most common comorbid condition with depressive disorders. Contents of CaMKII and PSD95 decreased in hippocampus of SD rats. Exenatide treatment improved the impaired memory of SD rats and increased CaMKII content in hippocampus There was no difference in MDA and GSH levels among groups. Exenatide treatment also diminished locomotor activity in OFT. In conclusion, treatment with exenatide, at least in part, prevented from these cognitive and behavioral changes possibly through normalizing CaMKII levels in the hippocampus.

Every-other day fasting prevents memory impairment induced by high fat-diet: Role of oxidative stress

Imbalance of diet consumption results in memory and learning deterioration. High-fat diet (HFD) causes neuronal damage and eventually cognitive impairment, which can be related to increasing oxidative stress in the brain. Using the every other day fasting (EODF) paradigm, as a method of dietary restriction is thought to provide protection of learning and memory in several experimental studies. In the current work, the preventive effect of EODF paradigm on memory impairment-induced by HFD was investigated. Adult male Wistar rats were fed with HFD using the EODF paradigm for six weeks. At the end of these six weeks, and while the previous treatment were continued, rats were examined for learning and memory (both the short-term and the long-term memory) using the radial arm water maze (RAWM). Oxidative stress in the brain, namely in the hippocampus was also assessed. Chronic administration of HFD induced impairment in both, short- and long- term memory that was prevented using EODF paradigm. Furthermore, EODF prevented HFD-induced decrease in the activities of the antioxidant enzymes, SOD and catalase along with reduction of glutathione (GSH) level and the ratio of reduced glutathione/oxidized glutathione (GSH/GSSG ratio). The EODF also inhibited rise in oxidized glutathione (GSSG) and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) seen with HFD. In conclusion, EODF ameliorated oxidative stress and memory impairment induced by chronic HFD. This probably, can be explained by the ability of EODF to normalize mechanisms involved in oxidative stress in the hippocampus.

Anti-depressant effect of cerebrolysin in reserpine-induced depression in rats: Behavioral, biochemical, molecular and immunohistochemical evidence

Depression is a major psychological disorder that contributes to global health problem. This study aimed to evaluate the anti-depressant effect of Cerebrolysin (CBL) in Reserpine-induced depressed rats, its effect on oxidative stress, inflammation, regulatory cyclic AMP-dependent response element binding protein (CREB)/brain derived neurotropic factor (BDNF) signaling pathways, brain monoamines and histopathological changes was assessed. Rats received either the vehicle or Reserpine (0.5 mg/kg, i.p.) for 14 days. The other three groups were pretreated with CBL (2.5, 5 ml/kg; i.p.) or fluoxetine (FLU) (5 mg/kg, p.o.), respectively for 14 days, 30 min before reserpine injection. Then analyses were conducted. CBL reversed Reserpine-induced reduction in latency to immobility and prolongation of immobility time in the forced swimming test (FST), reduced malondialdehyde (MDA), elevated reduced glutathione (GSH), reduced tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-ɑ), and elevated BDNF cortical and hippocampal brain contents. CBL elevated protein kinase A (PKA) and nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) cortical and hippocampal protein expressions. CBL also ameliorated alterations in mRNA expressions of protein kinase B (AKT), CREB and BDNF in the cortical and hippocampal tissues. CBL elevated nor-epinephrine (NE), serotonin (5-HT), and dopamine (DA) and reduced 5-Hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HTAA), 3,4-Dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC), and homovanillic acid (HVA) cortical and hippocampal contents. CBL effects were in parallel to those observed with the standard anti-depressant drug, FLU. This study shows that CBL exerted anti-depressant effect evidenced by attenuation of oxidative stress and inflammation as well as enhancement of neurogenesis, amelioration of monoaminergic system and histopathological changes.

The effect of alpha lipoic acid on passive avoidance and social interaction memory, pain perception, and locomotor activity in REM sleep-deprived rats

BACKGROUND

Evidence shows the vital role of sleep in the modulation of cognitive functions. Sleep deprivation (SD) can disrupt learning and memory processes. SD also affects pain perception and locomotor activity. Furthermore, alpha lipoic acid (ALA) may induce antioxidant and neuroprotective effects. ALA affects memory processes, pain subthreshold, and locomotor activity. The goal of the present study was to investigate the effect of REM (rapid-eye movement) SD and ALA on social and passive avoidance memory, locomotor activity, and pain perception.

METHODS

Multiple-platform apparatus was used to induce REM SD for 24 h. Three-chamber paradigm test, the shuttle box, locomotion apparatus, and hot plate were used to assess social interaction memory, passive avoidance memory, locomotor activity, and pain perception, respectively. ALA was injected intraperitoneally at the doses of 35 and 70 mg/kg.

RESULTS

24 h REM SD impaired both types of memory. In addition, ALA (35 mg/kg) reversed REM SD-induced memory impairments. However, ALA (70 mg/kg) impaired social memory with no effect on REM SD-induced memory impairments. ALA (70 mg/kg) also decreased pain subthreshold in REM SD rats.

CONCLUSION

REM SD impairs social interaction and passive avoidance memory. Furthermore, ALA may exhibit a dose-dependent manner in some cognitive tasks. ALA can induce a therapeutic effect at one dose, and an impairment effect at another dose (lower or higher), while the cognitive task and the conditions are equal.

The interaction effect of sleep deprivation and cannabinoid type 1 receptor in the CA1 hippocampal region on passive avoidance memory, depressive-like behavior and locomotor activity in rats

Increasing evidence shows the interaction effect of cannabinoids and sleep on cognitive functions. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the interaction effect of cannabinoids type 1 receptor (CB1r) in the CA1 hippocampal region and sleep deprivation (SD) on passive avoidance memory and depressive-like behavior in male Wistar rats. We used water box apparatus to induce total SD (TSD) for 24 h. The shuttle-box was applied to assess passive avoidance memory and locomotion apparatus was applied to assess locomotor activity. Forced swim test (FST) was used to evaluate rat's behavior. ACPA (CB1r agonist) at the doses of 0.01, 0.001 and 0.0001 μg/rat, and AM251 (CB1r antagonist) at the doses of 100, 10 and 1 ng/rat were injected intra-CA1, five minutes after training via stereotaxic surgery. Results showed SD impaired memory. ACPA at the doses of 0.01 and 0.001 μg/rat impaired memory and at all doses did not alter the effect of SD on memory. AM251 by itself did not alter memory, while at lowest dose (1 ng/rat) restored SD-induced memory deficit. Both drugs induced depressive-like behavior in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, both drugs decreased swimming at some doses (ACPA at 0.0001 μg/rat, AM251 at 0.001 and 0.01 ng/rat). Also, ACPA at the highest dose increased climbing of SD rats. In conclusion, we suggest CB1r may interact with the effect of SD on memory. Additionally, cannabinoids may show a dose-dependent manner in modulating mood and behavior. Interestingly, CB1r agonists and antagonists may exhibit a similar effect in some behavioral assessments.

Cerebrolysin in the therapy of mild cognitive impairment and dementia due to Alzheimer's disease: 30 years of clinical use

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurocognitive disorder and a global health problem. The prevalence of AD is growing dramatically, especially in low- and middle-income countries, and will reach 131.5 million cases worldwide by 2050. Therefore, developing a disease-modifying therapy capable of delaying or even preventing the onset and progression of AD has become a world priority, and is an unmet need. The pathogenesis of AD, considered as the result of an imbalance between resilience and risk factors, begins many years before the typical clinical picture develops and involves multiple pathophysiological mechanisms. Since the pathophysiology of AD is multifactorial, it is not surprising that all attempts done to modify the disease course with drugs directed towards a single therapeutic target have been unsuccessful. Thus, combined modality therapy, using multiple drugs with a single mechanism of action or multi-target drugs, appears as the most promising strategy for both effective AD therapy and prevention. Cerebrolysin, acting as a multitarget peptidergic drug with a neurotrophic mode of action, exerts long-lasting therapeutic effects on AD that could reflect its potential utility for disease modification. Clinical trials demonstrated that Cerebrolysin is safe and efficacious in the treatment of AD, and may enhance and prolong the efficacy of cholinergic drugs, particularly in moderate to advanced AD patients. In this review, we summarize advances of therapeutic relevance in the pathogenesis and the biomarkers of AD, paying special attention to neurotrophic factors, and present results of preclinical and clinical investigations with Cerebrolysin in AD.

The role of sleep disturbances in depressive-like behavior with emphasis on α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase activity in rats

Sleep disorders may induce anxiety- and depressive-like behaviors. Furthermore, sleep disorders can alter the function of α-KGDH (α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase), which is involved in the citric acid cycle. In this study, we evaluated the effect of two models of sleep deprivation (SD) including total SD (TSD) and partial SD (PSD), and two models of napping combined with each models of SD on rats' performance in Forced Swim Test (FST) and α-KGDH activity in both hemispheres of the amygdala. 64 male Wistar rats were used in this study. A modified water box was also used to induce SD. The results showed that, immobility was increased in 48-hour PSD group, indicating a possible depressive-like behavior. Swimming time was also increased following 48-hour TSD. However, climbing time was decreased in 48-hour PSD/TSD groups. Additionally, α-KGDH activity was increased in the left amygdala in 48-hour TSD and PSD groups. In conclusion, PSD may increase depressive-like behavior. TSD and PSD can decrease swimming time but increase climbing time, and these effects may be related to serotonergic and noradrenergic transmissions, respectively. Increase in α-KGDH activity in the left amygdala may be related to the brain's need for more energy during prolonged wakefulness. α-KGDH activity in the right amygdala was unaffected probably due to a decrease in alertness following SD.