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Ferreira SR, da Silva KM, Simão BR, Baptista KEV, da Paschoa R, Silveira V, Fernandes KVS, Oliveira AEA. Seeds of nonhost species as sources of toxic compounds for the cowpea weevil Callosobruchus maculatus (F.). PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2024; 200:105829. [PMID: 38582575 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2024.105829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Revised: 02/05/2024] [Accepted: 02/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/08/2024]
Abstract
Cowpea weevil, Callosobruchus maculatus, is the primary pest of stored cowpea seeds. The management of this infestation currently relies on insecticides, resulting in environmental pollution and selection of insecticide-resistant pests. Consequently, research efforts are being devoted to identify natural insecticides as sustainable and environment friendly alternatives for the control of C. maculatus. In this study, we explore the toxic effects of the nonhost seeds Parkia multijuga, Copaifera langsdorffii, Ormosia arborea, Amburana cearensis, Lonchocarpus guilleminianus, Sapindus saponaria, and Myroxylon peruiferum, on the cowpea weevil C. maculatus. Notably, all nonhost seeds led to reductions between 60 and 100% in oviposition by C. maculatus females. Additionally, the larvae were unable to penetrate the nonhost seeds. Artificial seeds containing 0.05% to 10% of cotyledon flour were toxic to C. maculatus larvae. Approximately 40% of larvae that consumed seeds containing 0.05% of O. arborea failed to develop, in contrast to control larvae. Proteomic analysis of A. cearensis and O. arborea seeds identify revealed a total of 371 proteins. From those, 237 are present in both seeds, 91 were exclusive to O. arborea seeds, and 43 were specific to A. cearensis seeds. Some of these proteins are related to defense, such as proteins containing the cupin domain and 11S seed storage protein. The in silico docking of cupin domain-containing proteins and 11S storage protein with N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)4 showed negative values of affinity energy, indicating spontaneous binding. These results showed that nonhost seeds have natural insecticide compounds with potential to control C. maculatus infestation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Rodrigues Ferreira
- Laboratório de Química e Função de Proteínas e Peptídeos, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro - UENF, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ 28013-602, Brazil
| | - Karine Marques da Silva
- Laboratório de Química e Função de Proteínas e Peptídeos, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro - UENF, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ 28013-602, Brazil
| | - Bruna Rohem Simão
- Laboratório de Melhoramento Genético Vegetal, Centro de Ciências e Tecnologias Agropecuárias, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro - UENF, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ 28013-602, Brazil
| | - Kayan Eudorico Ventury Baptista
- Laboratório de Química e Função de Proteínas e Peptídeos, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro - UENF, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ 28013-602, Brazil
| | - Roberta da Paschoa
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro - UENF, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ 28013-602, Brazil
| | - Vanildo Silveira
- Laboratório de Biotecnologia, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro - UENF, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ 28013-602, Brazil
| | - Kátia Valevski Sales Fernandes
- Laboratório de Química e Função de Proteínas e Peptídeos, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro - UENF, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ 28013-602, Brazil
| | - Antônia Elenir Amâncio Oliveira
- Laboratório de Química e Função de Proteínas e Peptídeos, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro - UENF, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ 28013-602, Brazil.
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Oguri S. Structure and Function of Plant Chitin-binding Lectins and Tomato Lectin. TRENDS GLYCOSCI GLYC 2022. [DOI: 10.4052/tigg.2123.1j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Suguru Oguri
- Department of Northern Biosphere Agriculture, Faculty of Bioindustry Tokyo University of Agriculture
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3
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Oguri S. Structure and Function of Plant Chitin-binding Lectins and Tomato Lectin. TRENDS GLYCOSCI GLYC 2022. [DOI: 10.4052/tigg.2123.1e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Suguru Oguri
- Department of Northern Biosphere Agriculture, Faculty of Bioindustry Tokyo University of Agriculture
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Zhang X, Zhang F, Lu X. Diversity and Functional Roles of the Gut Microbiota in Lepidopteran Insects. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10061234. [PMID: 35744751 PMCID: PMC9231115 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10061234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2022] [Revised: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Lepidopteran insects are one of the most widespread and speciose lineages on Earth, with many common pests and beneficial insect species. The evolutionary success of their diversification depends on the essential functions of gut microorganisms. This diverse gut microbiota of lepidopteran insects provides benefits in nutrition and reproductive regulation and plays an important role in the defence against pathogens, enhancing host immune homeostasis. In addition, gut symbionts have shown promising applications in the development of novel tools for biological control, biodegradation of waste, and blocking the transmission of insect-borne diseases. Even though most microbial symbionts are unculturable, the rapidly expanding catalogue of microbial genomes and the application of modern genetic techniques offer a viable alternative for studying these microbes. Here, we discuss the gut structure and microbial diversity of lepidopteran insects, as well as advances in the understanding of symbiotic relationships and interactions between hosts and symbionts. Furthermore, we provide an overview of the function of the gut microbiota, including in host nutrition and metabolism, immune defence, and potential mechanisms of detoxification. Due to the relevance of lepidopteran pests in agricultural production, it can be expected that the research on the interactions between lepidopteran insects and their gut microbiota will be used for biological pest control and protection of beneficial insects in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiancui Zhang
- Institute of Sericulture and Apiculture, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310029, China;
| | - Fan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Resistance Biology of Shandong Province, College of Life Science, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China
- Correspondence: (F.Z.); (X.L.)
| | - Xingmeng Lu
- Institute of Sericulture and Apiculture, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310029, China;
- Correspondence: (F.Z.); (X.L.)
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Physiological characterization of chitin synthase A responsible for the biosynthesis of cuticle chitin in Culex pipiens pallens (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:234. [PMID: 33933137 PMCID: PMC8088658 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-04741-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The pathogens transmitted by mosquitoes to humans and animals cause several emerging and resurgent infectious diseases. Increasing insecticide resistance requires rational action to control the target vector population. Chitin is indispensable for insect growth and development and absent from vertebrates and higher plants. Chitin synthase A (CHSA) is a crucial enzyme in chitin synthesis; therefore, identifying and characterizing how CHSA determines chitin content may contribute to the development of novel vector control strategies. Results The injection of small interfering RNA targeting CHSA (siCHSA) to knockdown CHSA transcripts in larval, pupal and adult stages of Culex pipiens pallens resulted in the appearance of different lethal phenotypes. When larval and pupal stages were injected with siCHSA, CHSA knockdown prevented larval molting, pupation and adult eclosion, and affected the production of chitin and chitin degradation, which resulted in an ecdysis defect phenotype of mosquitoes. When siCHSA was injected into mosquitoes in the adult stage, CHSA knockdown also affected the laminar organization of the mesoderm and the formation of pseudo-orthogonal patterns of the large fibers of the endoderm. Conclusion We provide a systematic and comprehensive description of the effects of CHSA on morphogenesis and metamorphosis. The results show that CHSA not only affects chitin synthesis during molting, but also might be involved in chitin degradation. Our results further show that CHSA is important for the structural integrity of the adult mosquito cuticle. Graphic abstract ![]()
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13071-021-04741-2.
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Ferreira SR, de Moura Rocha M, Damasceno-Silva KJ, Ferreira ATS, Perales J, Fernandes KVS, Oliveira AEA. The resistance of the cowpea cv. BRS Xiquexique to infestation by cowpea weevil is related to the presence of toxic chitin-binding proteins. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2021; 173:104782. [PMID: 33771261 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2021.104782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The cowpea weevil (Callosobruchus maculatus) is the main pest that attacks cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) seeds during storage, causing nutritional and economic losses in the cowpea crop. Thus, studies aiming to identify resistant cowpea cultivars have been developed. Chitin-binding proteins (CBP), such vicilins and chitinases, have been detected in seeds and related with the toxicity to insects. In this work, we investigated the presence of chitin-binding proteins in the partially resistant cowpea cv. BRS Xiquexique and evaluated their toxicity towards cowpea weevil. The CBP fraction was isolated by chitin affinity chromatography. CBP fraction showed, through 15% SDS PAGE, protein bands with varying molecular masses, mainly below 55 kDa. Proteins present in CBP fraction were identified by Western blotting and mass spectrometry analysis, as vicilins and chitinases. CBP fraction, at 5%, was able to interfere with the development of cowpea weevil, decreasing larval mass and length. A CBV (chitin-binding vicilin) fraction isolated from CBP fraction was toxic, at 2.0%, to C. maculatus, decreasing larval mass and length in 64.3% and 33.23%, respectively. These results suggest that chitin binding proteins, such vicilins and chitinases, may be related to the resistance of cowpea cv. BRS Xiquexique to the infestation by C. maculatus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Rodrigues Ferreira
- Laboratório de Química e Função de Proteínas e Peptídeos, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro - UENF, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ 28013-602, Brazil
| | - Maurisrael de Moura Rocha
- Embrapa Meio-Norte, Avenida Duque de Caxias, 5650, Bairro Buenos Aires, Teresina, PI 64008-780, Brazil
| | | | - Andre T S Ferreira
- Laboratório de Toxinologia, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz - FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Jonas Perales
- Laboratório de Toxinologia, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz - FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Kátia V S Fernandes
- Laboratório de Química e Função de Proteínas e Peptídeos, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro - UENF, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ 28013-602, Brazil
| | - Antonia E A Oliveira
- Laboratório de Química e Função de Proteínas e Peptídeos, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro - UENF, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ 28013-602, Brazil.
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Murata M, Konno K, Wasano N, Mochizuki A, Mitsuhara I. Expression of a gene for an MLX56 defense protein derived from mulberry latex confers strong resistance against a broad range of insect pests on transgenic tomato lines. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0239958. [PMID: 33428626 PMCID: PMC7799757 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0239958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Insect pests cause serious damage in crop production, and various attempts have been made to produce insect-resistant crops, including the expression of genes for proteins with anti-herbivory activity, such as Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) toxins. However, the number of available genes with sufficient anti-herbivory activity is limited. MLX56 is an anti-herbivory protein isolated from the latex of mulberry plants, and has been shown to have strong growth-suppressing activity against the larvae of a variety of lepidopteran species. As a model of herbivore-resistant plants, we produced transgenic tomato lines expressing the gene for MLX56. The transgenic tomato lines showed strong anti-herbivory activities against the larvae of the common cutworm, Spodoptera litura. Surprisingly, the transgenic tomato lines also exhibited strong activity against the attack of western flower thrips, Frankliniera occidentalis. Further, growth of the hadda beetle, Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata, fed on leaves of transgenic tomato was significantly retarded. The levels of damage caused by both western flower thrips and hadda beetles were negligible in the high-MLX56-expressing tomato line. These results indicate that introduction of the gene for MLX56 into crops can enhance crop resistance against a wide range of pest insects, and that MLX56 can be utilized in developing genetically modified (GM) pest-resistant crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mika Murata
- Institute of Vegetable and Floriculture Science, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), Tsu, Mie Prefecture, Japan
| | - Kotaro Konno
- Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, NARO, Tsukuba, Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan
- * E-mail: (IM); (KK)
| | - Naoya Wasano
- Institute of Biological Control, Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan
| | - Atsushi Mochizuki
- Institute of Agro-Environmental Sciences, NARO, Tsukuba, Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan
| | - Ichiro Mitsuhara
- Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, NARO, Tsukuba, Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan
- * E-mail: (IM); (KK)
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Campos JM, Martínez LC, Plata-Rueda A, Weigand W, Zanuncio JC, Serrão JE. Insecticide potential of two saliva components of the predatory bug Podisus nigrispinus (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) against Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) caterpillars. TOXIN REV 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/15569543.2020.1868008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Angelica Plata-Rueda
- Departamento de Entomologia/BIOAGRO, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Brazil
| | - Wolfgang Weigand
- Friedrich-Schiller-Universitaet Jena Institut fuer Anorganische und Analytische Chemie, Jena, Germany
| | - José Cola Zanuncio
- Departamento de Entomologia/BIOAGRO, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Brazil
| | - José Eduardo Serrão
- Departamento de Biologia Geral, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Brazil
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Mason CJ. Complex Relationships at the Intersection of Insect Gut Microbiomes and Plant Defenses. J Chem Ecol 2020; 46:793-807. [PMID: 32537721 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-020-01187-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2020] [Revised: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Insect herbivores have ubiquitous associations with microorganisms that have major effects on how host insects may interact in their environment. Recently, increased attention has been given to how insect gut microbiomes mediate interactions with plants. In this paper, I discuss the ecology and physiology of gut bacteria associated with insect herbivores and how they may shape interactions between insects and their various host plants. I first establish how microbial associations vary between insects with different feeding styles, and how the insect host physiology and ecology can shape stable or transient relationships with gut bacteria. Then, I describe how these relationships factor in with plant nutrition and plant defenses. Within this framework, I suggest that many of the interactions between plants, insects, and the gut microbiome are context-dependent and shaped by the type of defense and the isolates present in the environment. Relationships between insects and plants are not pairwise, but instead highly multipartite, and the interweaving of complex microbial interactions is needed to fully explore the context-dependent aspects of the gut microbiome in many of these systems. I conclude the review by suggesting studies that would help reduce the unsureness of microbial interactions with less-defined herbivore systems and identify how each could provide a path to more robust roles and traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles J Mason
- The Pennsylvania State University Department of Entomology, 501 ASI Building, University Park, PA, 16823, USA.
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10
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Yang X, Yin Q, Xu Y, Li X, Sun Y, Ma L, Zhou D, Shen B. Molecular and physiological characterization of the chitin synthase B gene isolated from Culex pipiens pallens (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasit Vectors 2019; 12:614. [PMID: 31888727 PMCID: PMC6937787 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-019-3867-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Accepted: 12/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The growth and development of insects is strictly dependent on the precise regulation of chitin synthase (CHS), which is absent in vertebrates and plants. Therefore, CHS represents an attractive target for insecticides. At present, the research on the CHS gene in mosquitoes, especially its biological functions, remains limited. RESULTS The full-length cDNA of the chitin synthase B gene in Culex pipiens pallens (CpCHSB) was prepared and consists of 5158 nucleotides with an open reading frame (ORF) of 4722 nucleotides encoding a protein of 1573 amino acid residues. Among different tissues, CpCHSB gene is mainly expressed in the midgut tissue with the highest expression in adult mosquitoes. Knockdown of CpCHSB in the larval stage significantly lowered the chitin content (16.5%) decreased body size (reduced by 25.6% in the larval stage and by 25.6% in the adult stage), and diminished reproduction (20%). Injecting siCHSB into adult mosquito mainly decreased reproduction (27%). CONCLUSIONS CpCHSB plays essential roles in growth and development, by severely reducing larval chitin content, midgut permeability, and reducing the number of female mosquito offspring. These results indicate that CHSB may serve as a potential novel target for exploring biosafe insecticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoshan Yang
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Qi Yin
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yang Xu
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xixi Li
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yan Sun
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Lei Ma
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Dan Zhou
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.
| | - Bo Shen
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.
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Konno K, Mitsuhashi W. The peritrophic membrane as a target of proteins that play important roles in plant defense and microbial attack. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 117:103912. [PMID: 31301311 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2019.103912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Revised: 06/18/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The peritrophic membrane (or peritrophic matrix: PM) is a thin membranous structure that lies along the midgut epithelium in the midgut lumen and consists of chitin and proteins. PM exists between ingested food material and midgut epithelium cells and it is on the frontline of insect-plant and insect-microbe interactions. Therefore, proteins that play major roles in plant defense against herbivorous insects and in microbial attack on insects should penetrate, destroy or modify the PM to accomplish their roles. Recently, it has become clear that some proteins crucial to plant defense or microbial attack have the PM as their primary target. In addition, several plant defense proteins have been reported to affect the PM, although it is still unclear whether the PM is their primary target. This review introduces several of these proteins: fusolin and enhancin, two proteins produced by insect viruses that greatly enhance infection of the viruses by disrupting the PM; the MLX56 family proteins found in mulberry latex as defense proteins against insect herbivores, which modify the PM to a thick structure that inhibits digestive processes; Mir1-CP, a defense cysteine protease from maize that inhibits the growth of insects at very low concentrations and degrades the PM structures; and chitinases and lectins. The importance, necessary characteristics, and modes of action of PM-targeting proteins are then discussed from a strategic point of view, by spotlighting the importance of selective permeability of the PM. Finally, the review discusses the possibility of applying PM-targeting proteins for the control of pest insects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kotaro Konno
- Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), 1-2 Ohwashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8634, Japan.
| | - Wataru Mitsuhashi
- Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), 1-2 Ohwashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8634, Japan
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12
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Ramos MV, Demarco D, da Costa Souza IC, de Freitas CDT. Laticifers, Latex, and Their Role in Plant Defense. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 24:553-567. [PMID: 30979674 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2019.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2018] [Revised: 03/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Latex, a sap produced by cells called laticifers, occurs in plants of wide taxonomic diversity. Plants exude latex sap in response to physical damage. Questions about the function of latex or the underlying mechanisms persist, but a role in defense is likely. The presence of constitutive peptidases in latex sap in addition to inducible and de novo synthesized pathogenesis-related proteins (PR-proteins), raises the question about the role that each sap component plays to protect plants and how synergism occurs among sap proteins in the course of herbivory or infection. Here we discuss a variety of functions for laticifer and latex in plant defense. We propose that latex peptidases build the front line of defense against herbivores or pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Márcio Viana Ramos
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Campus do Pici, Bloco 907, Fortaleza-Ceará, CEP 60451-970, Brazil.
| | - Diego Demarco
- Departamento de Botânica, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, CEP 05508-090, Brazil
| | - Isabel Cristina da Costa Souza
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Campus do Pici, Bloco 907, Fortaleza-Ceará, CEP 60451-970, Brazil
| | - Cleverson Diniz Teixeira de Freitas
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Campus do Pici, Bloco 907, Fortaleza-Ceará, CEP 60451-970, Brazil
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