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Bomberg EM, Kyle T, Stanford FC. Considering Pediatric Obesity as a US Public Health Emergency. Pediatrics 2023; 152:e2023061501. [PMID: 37701953 PMCID: PMC10522927 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2023-061501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Eric M. Bomberg
- Center for Pediatric Obesity Medicine, Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | | | - Fatima C. Stanford
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Department of Medicine-Division of Endocrinology-Neuroendocrine, Department of Pediatrics-Division of Endocrinology, Nutrition Obesity Research Center at Harvard (NORCH), Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
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2
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Shen J, Wang J, Yang F, An R. Impact of soda tax on beverage price, sale, purchase, and consumption in the US: a systematic review and meta-analysis of natural experiments. Front Public Health 2023; 11:1126569. [PMID: 37808982 PMCID: PMC10556476 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1126569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 10/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Background As a primary source of added sugars in the US diet, sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) consumption is presumed to contribute to obesity prevalence and poor oral health. We systematically synthesized and quantified evidence from US-based natural experiments concerning the impact of SSB taxes on beverage prices, sales, purchases, and consumption. Methods A keyword and reference search was performed in PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, Scopus, and EconLit from the inception of an electronic bibliographic database to Oct 31, 2022. Meta-analysis was conducted to estimate the pooled effect of soda taxes on SSB consumption, prices, passthrough rate, and purchases. Results Twenty-six natural experiments, all adopting a difference-in-differences approach, were included. Studies assessed soda taxes in Berkeley, Oakland, and San Francisco in California, Philadelphia in Pennsylvania, Boulder in Colorado, Seattle in Washington, and Cook County in Illinois. Tax rates ranged from 1 to 2 ¢/oz. The imposition of the soda tax was associated with a 1.06 ¢/oz. (95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.90, 1.22) increase in SSB prices and a 27.3% (95% CI = 19.3, 35.4%) decrease in SSB purchases. The soda tax passthrough rate was 79.7% (95% CI = 65.8, 93.6%). A 1 ¢/oz. increase in soda tax rate was associated with increased prices of SSBs by 0.84 ¢/oz (95% CI = 0.33, 1.35). Conclusion Soda taxes could be effective policy leverage to nudge people toward purchasing and consuming fewer SSBs. Future research should examine evidence-based classifications of SSBs, targeted use of revenues generated by taxes to reduce health and income disparities, and the feasibility of redesigning the soda tax to improve efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Shen
- Department of Physical Education, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing, China
| | - Junjie Wang
- School of Kinesiology and Health Promotion, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Fan Yang
- School of Public Administration, Dongbei University of Finance and Economics, Dalian, Liaoning, China
| | - Ruopeng An
- Brown School, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, United States
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Andreyeva T, Marple K, Marinello S, Moore TE, Powell LM. Outcomes Following Taxation of Sugar-Sweetened Beverages: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Netw Open 2022; 5:e2215276. [PMID: 35648398 PMCID: PMC9161017 DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.15276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Importance More than 45 countries and several local jurisdictions have implemented sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) taxes to improve nutrition and population health, and evidence on their outcomes to date is essential to inform policy discussions. Responding to this need, the World Health Organization commissioned a systematic literature review on the outcomes of fiscal policies, including SSB taxes. Objective To assess the associations of implemented SSB taxes with prices, sales, consumption, diet, body weight, product changes, unintended consequences, health, and pregnancy outcomes. Data Sources Searches of 8 bibliographic databases (Business Source Complete, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, CINAHL, EconLit, PsycINFO, PubMed, and Scopus) were performed from database inception through June 1, 2020, with no language or setting restrictions. Grey literature was assessed using 14 sources and government websites. Study Selection The review included primary studies of implemented SSB taxes. Data Extraction and Synthesis The review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses guidelines. For prices, sales and consumption, results were meta-analyzed using a 3-level random-effects model. Study quality was assessed at the outcome level. Main Outcomes and Measures Tax pass-through rate for prices, percentage reduction in SSB demand, and price elasticity of demand for sales and consumption. Heterogeneity was assessed using τ2 and the I2 statistic. Results A total of 86 articles were eligible, with 62 studies contributing to the meta-analysis. The overall tax pass-through rate was 82% (95% CI, 66% to 98%; P < .001, I2 = 99%), suggesting tax undershifting. The demand for SSBs was highly sensitive to tax-induced price increases, with the price elasticity of demand of -1.59 (95% CI, -2.11 to -1.08; P < .001; I2 = 100%) and a mean reduction in SSB sales of 15% (95% CI, -20% to -9%; P < .001; I2 = 100%). There was no evidence of substitution to untaxed beverages, and changes in SSB consumption were not significant. The narrative synthesis found reformulation and reduced sugar content of taxed beverages for tiered taxes, cross-border shopping in most studies of local-level taxes, and no negative changes in employment. Data on the heterogeneity of SSB tax outcomes across subpopulations were limited. Conclusions and Relevance In this systematic review and meta-analysis of implemented SSB taxes worldwide, SSB taxes were associated with higher prices and lower sales of taxed beverages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Andreyeva
- Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Rudd Center for Food Policy & Health, University of Connecticut, Hartford
| | - Keith Marple
- The Heller School for Social Policy and Management, Brandeis University, Waltham, Massachusetts
| | - Samantha Marinello
- Health Policy and Administration, School of Public Health, University of Illinois Chicago
| | - Timothy E. Moore
- Statistical Consulting Services, Center for Open Research Resources & Equipment, University of Connecticut, Storrs
| | - Lisa M. Powell
- Health Policy and Administration, School of Public Health, University of Illinois Chicago
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Liu J, Chen T, Chen M, Ma Y, Ma T, Gao D, Li Y, Ma Q, Chen L, Wang X, Zhang Y, Ma J, Dong Y. Sugar-Sweetened Beverages and Depressive and Social Anxiety Symptoms Among Children and Adolescents Aged 7–17 Years, Stratified by Body Composition. Front Nutr 2022; 9:888671. [PMID: 35677554 PMCID: PMC9168881 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2022.888671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Rare studies investigated the associations between sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) consumption with depressive and social anxiety symptoms among children and adolescents, particularly in different stratification of body composition, which was our purpose. Methods A cross-sectional survey of children and adolescents aged 7–17 years was conducted in Beijing, China, in 2020, with an average age of 12.07 (SD: 3.09) years. Children's Depression Inventory (CDI) questionnaires and social anxiety scale for children (SASC) were completed in the baseline questionnaires. SSB consumption and body composition were assessed using child-reported questionnaires and a GE Healthcare Lunar iDXA dual-energy X-ray bone densitometer. Multivariate logistic regression was used to assess the associations between SSB consumption with depressive and social anxiety symptoms. Confounders were evaluated by child-reported and parental questionnaires, including age, sex, parental educational attainment, maternal smoking status, single-child status, BMI, incomes, fruit consumption, physical activity, screen time, and the frequency of fried food consumption. Stratified analyses were performed to explore whether the associations were influenced by body composition. Results A total of 1,311 children and adolescents, including 658 boys and 653 girls, were included in the final analysis. There were 13.96 and 29.75% of the study population with depressive and social anxiety symptoms, respectively. Overall, about 63.77% of the children and adolescents consumed SSB, and the average SSB intake was 0.35 servings per day. In the fully adjusted model, compared to participants who did not consume SSB each day, SSB consumption of ≥1 servings/day was positively associated with depressive symptoms [odds ratio (OR) = 2.28, 95% CI = 1.30–4.01] and social anxiety (OR = 1.10, 95% CI = 0.69–1.77), though the latter did not reach statistical significance. When individuals had higher body fat or lower fat-free mass (FFM) or muscle, the ORs of depressive symptoms were more evident among children and adolescents who drank SSB for ≥1 servings/day (P < 0.05). Conclusion Higher consumption of SSB could be associated with increased OR of depressive symptoms in children and adolescents. The association remained robust, especially in groups with higher body fat or lower fat-free mass or muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jieyu Liu
- School of Public Health, Institute of Child and Adolescent Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
- National Health Commission Key Laboratory of Reproductive Health, Beijing, China
| | - Ting Chen
- School of Public Health, Institute of Child and Adolescent Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
- National Health Commission Key Laboratory of Reproductive Health, Beijing, China
| | - Manman Chen
- School of Public Health, Institute of Child and Adolescent Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
- National Health Commission Key Laboratory of Reproductive Health, Beijing, China
| | - Ying Ma
- School of Public Health, Institute of Child and Adolescent Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
- National Health Commission Key Laboratory of Reproductive Health, Beijing, China
| | - Tao Ma
- School of Public Health, Institute of Child and Adolescent Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
- National Health Commission Key Laboratory of Reproductive Health, Beijing, China
| | - Di Gao
- School of Public Health, Institute of Child and Adolescent Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
- National Health Commission Key Laboratory of Reproductive Health, Beijing, China
| | - Yanhui Li
- School of Public Health, Institute of Child and Adolescent Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
- National Health Commission Key Laboratory of Reproductive Health, Beijing, China
| | - Qi Ma
- School of Public Health, Institute of Child and Adolescent Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
- National Health Commission Key Laboratory of Reproductive Health, Beijing, China
| | - Li Chen
- School of Public Health, Institute of Child and Adolescent Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
- National Health Commission Key Laboratory of Reproductive Health, Beijing, China
| | - Xinxin Wang
- School of Public Health and Management, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, China
| | - Yi Zhang
- School of Public Health, Institute of Child and Adolescent Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
- National Health Commission Key Laboratory of Reproductive Health, Beijing, China
| | - Jun Ma
- School of Public Health, Institute of Child and Adolescent Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
- National Health Commission Key Laboratory of Reproductive Health, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Jun Ma
| | - Yanhui Dong
- School of Public Health, Institute of Child and Adolescent Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
- National Health Commission Key Laboratory of Reproductive Health, Beijing, China
- Yanhui Dong
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Grummon AH, Roberto CA, Lawman HG, Bleich SN, Yan J, Mitra N, Hua SV, Lowery CM, Peterhans A, Gibson LA. Purchases of Nontaxed Foods, Beverages, and Alcohol in a Longitudinal Cohort After Implementation of the Philadelphia Beverage Tax. J Nutr 2022; 152:880-888. [PMID: 34910200 DOI: 10.1093/jn/nxab421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Evidence suggests that sweetened beverage taxes reduce taxed beverage purchases, but few studies have used individual-level data to assess whether these taxes affect purchases of nontaxed foods, beverages, and alcohol. Additionally, research has not examined whether sweetened beverage taxes influence restaurant purchases. OBJECTIVES We assessed changes in individuals' purchases of taxed beverage types; low-calorie/low-added-sugar nontaxed beverages; high-calorie/high-added-sugar nontaxed beverages, foods, and alcohol; and beverages from restaurants following implementation of the 1.5 cent-per-ounce Philadelphia sweetened beverage tax. METHODS A longitudinal cohort of adult sugar-sweetened beverage consumers in Philadelphia (n = 306; 67% female; mean age: 43.9 years) and Baltimore (n = 297; comparison city without a beverage tax; 58% female; mean age: 41.7 years) submitted all food and beverage receipts during 2-week periods at baseline and at 3, 6, and 12 months posttax. Difference-in-differences analyses compared changes in purchases from pre- to posttax in Philadelphia to changes in Baltimore. RESULTS Purchases of taxed juice drinks [ratio of incidence rate ratios (RIRR) = 0.62; 95% CI, 0.42-0.91], but not other taxed beverage types, decreased in Philadelphia compared to Baltimore following the tax. Analyses did not find changes in purchases of low-calorie/low-added-sugar nontaxed beverages, such as water or milk. Additionally, analyses did not find increases in purchases of most high-calorie/high-added-sugar nontaxed products, including alcohol, juice, candy, sweet snacks, salty snacks, and desserts. Purchases of beverage concentrates increased in Philadelphia (RIRR = 2.22; 95% CI, 1.39-3.54). CONCLUSIONS In this difference-in-differences analysis, the Philadelphia beverage tax was associated with reduced purchases of taxed juice drinks. Purchases of beverage concentrates increased after the tax, but no increases were observed for other high-calorie/high-added-sugar nontaxed foods, beverages, or alcohol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna H Grummon
- Department of Nutrition, Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Population Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Christina A Roberto
- Department of Medical Ethics and Health Policy, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Hannah G Lawman
- Division of Chronic Disease and Injury Prevention, Philadelphia Department of Public Health, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Sara N Bleich
- Department of Health Policy and Management, Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jiali Yan
- Department of Medical Ethics and Health Policy, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Nandita Mitra
- Department of Biostatistics, Epidemiology, and Informatics, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Sophia V Hua
- Department of Nutrition, Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Caitlin M Lowery
- Department of Nutrition, University of North Carolina Gillings School of Global Public Health, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Ana Peterhans
- Department of Medical Ethics and Health Policy, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Laura A Gibson
- Department of Medical Ethics and Health Policy, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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Krieger J, Bleich SN, Scarmo S, Ng SW. Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Reduction Policies: Progress and Promise. Annu Rev Public Health 2021; 42:439-461. [PMID: 33256536 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-publhealth-090419-103005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Evidence showing the effectiveness of policies to reduce the consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) is growing. SSBs are one of the largest sources of added sugar in the diet and are linked to multiple adverse health conditions. This review presents a framework illustrating the various types of policies that have been used to reduce SSB exposure and consumption; policies are organized into four categories (financial, information, defaults, and availability) and take into consideration crosscutting policy considerations (feasibility, impact, and equity). Next, for each category, we describe a specific example and provide evidence of impact. Finally, we discuss crosscutting policy considerations, the challenge of choosing among the various policy options, and important areas for future research. Notably, no single policy will reduce SSB consumption to healthy levels, so an integrated policy approach that adapts to changing market and consumption trends; evolving social, political, and public health needs; and emerging science is critical.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Krieger
- Healthy Food America, Seattle, Washington 98122, USA.,Department of Health Services, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA;
| | - Sara N Bleich
- Department of Health Policy and Management, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA;
| | - Stephanie Scarmo
- American Heart Association, National Center, Dallas, Texas 75231, USA;
| | - Shu Wen Ng
- Department of Nutrition, Gillings School of Global Public Health and Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27516, USA;
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Leider J, Powell LM. Longer-term impacts of the Oakland, California, sugar-sweetened beverage tax on prices and volume sold at two-years post-tax. Soc Sci Med 2021; 292:114537. [PMID: 34838326 DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Revised: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) consumption is associated with obesity and independently associated with type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Not only is obesity a growing public health problem, but it is also most recently associated with increased risk of severe illness from COVID-19. Taxes on SSBs are a policy tool used to help curb SSB consumption and are currently implemented in 7 U.S. cities and more than 40 countries. On July 1, 2017, Oakland, California, implemented a 1-cent/ounce tax on SSBs with ≥25 kilocalories/12 ounces. This study estimated the impact of the Oakland tax on prices, volume sold, and cross-border shopping two-years post-tax relative to one-year pre-tax. Universal product code-level Nielsen retail scanner data on non-alcoholic beverage sales were analyzed using a difference-in-differences design with Sacramento, California, as the comparison site. Taxed beverage prices increased by 0.67 cents/ounce, on average, in Oakland relative to Sacramento, corresponding to 67% pass-through. Taxed beverage volume sold decreased by 18% in Oakland relative to Sacramento, with a larger decrease for family-size beverages (23%) relative to individual-size beverages (8%). There was a 9% increase in volume sold of taxed beverages in the two-mile border area surrounding Oakland relative to the Sacramento border area, driven by a 12% increase for family-size taxed beverages. After accounting for this cross-border shopping, there was a net decrease of 6% in taxed beverage volume sold in Oakland. There was no significant change in untaxed beverage volume sold in either Oakland or its border area relative to their respective comparison sites, suggesting there was no substitution to untaxed beverages and cross-border shopping may have been limited to taxed beverages. This two-year post-tax study of the Oakland SSB tax adds to the limited number of longer-term evaluations of local U.S. SSB taxes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Leider
- Institute for Health Research and Policy, University of Illinois Chicago, 1747 W. Roosevelt Road, MC 275, Chicago, IL, 60608, USA.
| | - Lisa M Powell
- Institute for Health Research and Policy, University of Illinois Chicago, 1747 W. Roosevelt Road, MC 275, Chicago, IL, 60608, USA; Division of Health Policy and Administration, School of Public Health, University of Illinois Chicago, 1603 W. Taylor Street, MC 923, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA
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8
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Bleich SN, Dunn CG, Soto MJ, Yan J, Gibson LA, Lawman HG, Mitra N, Lowery CM, Peterhans A, Hua SV, Roberto CA. Association of a Sweetened Beverage Tax With Purchases of Beverages and High-Sugar Foods at Independent Stores in Philadelphia. JAMA Netw Open 2021; 4:e2113527. [PMID: 34129022 PMCID: PMC8207239 DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.13527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 04/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Importance The relationship between a sweetened beverage tax and changes in the prices and purchases of beverages and high-sugar food is understudied in the long term and in small independent food retail stores where sugar-sweetened beverages are among the most commonly purchased items. Objective To examine whether a 1.5 cent-per-fluid-ounce excise tax on sugar- and artificially sweetened beverages Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, was associated with sustained changes in beverage prices and purchases, as well as calories purchased from beverages and high-sugar foods, over 2 years at small independent stores. Design, Setting, and Participants This cross-sectional study used a difference-in-differences approach to compare changes in beverage prices and purchases of beverages and high-sugar foods (candy, sweet snacks) at independent stores in Philadelphia and Baltimore, Maryland (a nontaxed control) before and 2 years after tax implementation, which occurred on January 1, 2017. Price comparisons were also made to independent stores in Philadelphia's neighboring counties. Main Outcomes and Measures Changes in mean price (measured in cents per fluid ounce) of taxed and nontaxed beverages, mean fluid ounces purchased of taxed and nontaxed beverages, and mean total calories purchased from beverages and high-sugar foods. Results Compared with Baltimore independent stores, taxed beverage prices in Philadelphia increased 2.06 cents per fluid ounce (95% CI, 1.75 to 2.38 cents per fluid ounce; P < .001), with 137% of the tax passed through to prices 2 years after tax implementation, while nontaxed beverage prices had no statistically significant change. A total of 116 independent stores and 4738 customer purchases (1950 [41.2%] women; 4351 [91.8%] age 18 years or older; 1006 [21.2%] White customers, 3185 [67.2%] Black customers) at independent stores were assessed for price and purchase comparisons. Purchases of taxed beverages declined by 6.1 fl oz (95% CI, -9.9 to -2.4 fl oz; P < .001), corresponding to a 42% decline in Philadelphia compared with Baltimore; there were no significant changes in purchases of nontaxed beverages. Although there was no significant moderation by neighborhood income or customer education level, exploratory stratified analyses revealed that declines in taxed beverage purchases were larger among customers shopping in low-income neighborhoods (-7.1 fl oz; 95% CI, -13.0 to -1.1 fl oz; P = .001) and individuals with lower education levels (-6.9 fl oz; 95% CI, -12.5 to -1.3 fl oz; P = .001). Conclusions and Relevance This cross-sectional study found that a tax on sweetened beverages was associated with increases in price and decreases in purchasing. Beverage excise taxes may be an effective policy to sustainably decrease purchases of sweetened drinks and calories from sugar in independent stores, with large reductions in lower-income areas and among customers with lower levels of education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara N. Bleich
- Department of Health Policy and Management, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Caroline G. Dunn
- Department of Health Policy and Management, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Mark J. Soto
- Department of Health Policy and Management, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Jiali Yan
- Department of Medical Ethics and Health Policy, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia
| | - Laura A. Gibson
- Department of Medical Ethics and Health Policy, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia
| | - Hannah G. Lawman
- Division of Chronic Disease Prevention, Philadelphia Department of Public Health, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Nandita Mitra
- Department of Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Informatics, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia
| | - Caitlin M. Lowery
- Department of Health Policy and Management, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Ana Peterhans
- Department of Medical Ethics and Health Policy, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia
| | - Sophia V. Hua
- Department of Medical Ethics and Health Policy, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia
| | - Christina A. Roberto
- Department of Medical Ethics and Health Policy, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia
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Longer-term impacts of sugar-sweetened beverage taxes on fast-food beverage prices: evidence from Oakland, California, 2-year post-tax. Public Health Nutr 2020; 24:3571-3575. [PMID: 33349292 DOI: 10.1017/s1368980020005212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the effect of a sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) tax implemented in Oakland, California, in July 2017, on prices of beverages sold in fast-food restaurants 2-year post-tax. DESIGN Using a difference-in-differences (DID) approach, we analysed beverage price data collected from fast-food restaurants 1-month pre-tax and 2-year post-tax in Oakland (intervention site) and Sacramento, California (comparison site). Separate linear regression models were used to estimate the impact of the tax on prices of bottled regular soda, bottled diet soda, bottled unsweetened beverages and fountain drinks. SETTING Oakland and Sacramento, California, USA. PARTICIPANTS Chain and non-chain fast-food restaurants (n 85). RESULTS DID estimates indicate that in fast-food restaurants, on average, the price of bottled regular soda increased by 1·44 cents/oz (95 % CI 0·50, 2·73) (tax pass-through rate of 144 %) and the price of bottled diet soda increased by 1·17 cents/oz (95 % CI 0·07, 2·13). No statistically significant differences were found between bottled regular and diet soda price increases. Price effects for unsweetened beverages and fountain drinks were not statistically significant. Further, the estimated price change for fountain drinks was nearly zero. CONCLUSIONS Findings suggest that the effectiveness of SSB taxes in discouraging SSB consumption may be limited in fast-food restaurants in Oakland, California, because there were similar price increases in taxed and untaxed bottled soda and no changes in fountain drink prices.
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