Multiple beneficial effects of melanocortin MC4 receptor agonists in experimental neurodegenerative disorders: Therapeutic perspectives

BONE MARROW MESENCHYMAL STROMAL CELL-DERIVED EXOSOMAL NRF2 AMELIORATES CEREBRAL ISCHEMIA-REPERFUSION INJURY BY TRANSCRIPTIONALLY ACTIVATING LIN28A

ABSTRACT

Background: Cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury (CIRI) have severe consequences on brain function, and the exciting evidence has revealed protective role of acyl-CoA synthetase long chain family member 4 (Lin28a) against cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. The present work aims to reveal its molecular mechanism in regulating CIRI, with the hope of providing a therapeutic method for cerebral I/R injury. We hypothesized that the exosomal nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2) derived from bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells could transcriptionally activate Lin28a and thereby alleviate cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. This hypothesis was validated in the present work. Methods: Middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model was established using C57BL/6J mice, and the neurological deficit, infarct volume, and brain water content were assessed to evaluate neuron injury. Human glioblastoma cells (A172) were subjected to oxygen-glucose deprivation and reoxygenation (OGD/R) treatment to mimic a cerebral I/R injury cell model. Exosome isolation reagent was used to isolate exosomes from cell supernatant of bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells through sequential centrifugation and filtration steps. mRNA expression level of Lin28a was detected by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Protein expression was analyzed by western blotting assay. TUNEL cell apoptosis detection kit was used to analyze cell apoptosis in brain tissues. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and commercial kits were used to detect levels of inflammatory markers and oxidative stress markers. Ferrous Iron Colorimetric Assay Kit and Fe 2+ colorimetric assay kit were used to analyze Fe 2+ level. The association of Lin28a and NRF2 was identified by chromatin immunoprecipitation assay and dual-luciferase reporter assay. Results: The treatment of MCAO substantially augmented infarct volume in mice, impaired neurological function, and elevated brain water content. Lin28a was lowly expressed in brain tissues of mice with CIRI, and its overexpression protected against cerebral I/R injury of MCAO mice. Moreover, Lin28a overexpression protected A172 cells against OGD/R treatment-induced injury. Additionally, NRF2 transcriptionally activated Lin28a in A172 cells. Bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cell-derived exosomes increased Lin28a expression in a NRF2-dependent manner. Bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cell-derived exosomal NRF2 improved OGD/R-induced A172 cell injury by inducing Lin28a production. Conclusion: Bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cell-derived exosomal NRF2 improved CIRI by transcriptionally activating Lin28a.

Activating MC4R Promotes Functional Recovery by Repressing Oxidative Stress-Mediated AIM2 Activation Post-spinal Cord Injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a destructive neurological trauma that induces permanent sensory and motor impairment as well as a deficit in autonomic physiological function. Melanocortin receptor 4 (MC4R) is a G protein-linked receptor that is extensively expressed in the neural system and contributes to inhibiting inflammation, regulating mitochondrial function, and inducing programmed cell death. However, the effect of MC4R in the modulation of oxidative stress and whether this mechanism is related to the role of absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) in SCI are not confirmed yet. In the current study, we demonstrated that MC4R is significantly increased in the neurons of spinal cords after trauma and oxidative stimulation of cells. Further, activation of MC4R by RO27-3225 effectively improved functional recovery, inhibited AIM2 activation, maintained mitochondrial homeostasis, repressed oxidative stress, and prevented Drp1 translocation to the mitochondria. Meanwhile, treating Drp1 inhibitors would be beneficial in reducing AIM2 activation, and activating AIM2 could abolish the protective effect of MC4R on neuron homeostasis. In conclusion, we demonstrated that MC4R protects against neural injury through a novel process by inhibiting mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, as well as AIM2 activation, which may serve as an available candidate for SCI therapy.

Melanocortin receptor 4 as a new target in melanoma therapy: Anticancer activity of the inhibitor ML00253764 alone and in association with B-raf inhibitor vemurafenib

The aim of our study is to investigate in vitro and in vivo MC4R as a novel target in melanoma using the selective antagonist ML00253764 (ML) alone and in combination with vemurafenib, a B-rafV600E inhibitor. The human melanoma B-raf mutated A-2058 and WM 266-4 cell lines were used. An MC4R null A-2058 cell line was generated using a CRISPR/Cas9 system. MC4R protein expression was analysed by western blotting, immunohistochemistry, and immunofluorescence. Proliferation and apoptotic assays were performed with ML00253764, whereas the synergism with vemurafenib was evaluated by the combination index (CI) and Loewe methods. ERK1/2 phosphorylation and BCL-XL expression were quantified by western blot. In vivo experiments were performed in Athymic Nude-Foxn1nu male mice, injecting subcutaneously melanoma cells, and treating animals with ML, vemurafenib and their concomitant combination. Comet and cytome assays were performed. Our results show that human melanoma cell lines A-2058 and WM 266-4, and melanoma human tissue, express functional MC4R receptors on their surface. MC4R receptors on melanoma cells can be inhibited by the selective antagonist ML, causing antiproliferative and proapoptotic activity through the inhibition of phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and a reduction of BCL-XL. The concomitant combination of vemurafenib and ML caused a synergistic effect on melanoma cells in vitro and inhibited in vivo tumor growth in a preclinical model, without causing mouse weight loss or genotoxicity. Our original research contributes to the landscape of pharmacological treatments for melanoma, providing MC4R antagonists as drugs that can be added to established therapies.

The melanocortin receptor signaling system and its role in neuroprotection against neurodegeneration: Therapeutic insights

The melanocortin signaling system consists of the melanocortin peptides, their distinctive receptors, accessory proteins, and endogenous antagonists. Melanocortin peptides are small peptide hormones that have been studied in a variety of physiological and pathological conditions. There are five types of melanocortin receptors, and they are distributed within the central nervous system and in several tissues of the periphery. The G protein-coupled melanocortin receptors typically signal through adenylyl cyclase and other downstream signaling pathways. Depending on the ligand, surface expression of melanocortin receptor, receptor occupancy period, related proteins, the type of cell, and other parameters, the signaling pathways are complicated and pleiotropic. While it is known that all five melanocortin receptors are coupled to Gs, they can also occasionally couple to Gq or Gi. Both direct and indirect neuroprotection are induced by the melanocortin signaling system. Targeting several of the components of the melanocortin signaling system (ligands, receptors, accessory proteins, signaling effectors, and regulators) may provide therapeutic opportunities. Activation of the melanocortin system improves different functional traits in neurodegenerative diseases. There is a potential for additional melanocortin system interventions by interfering with dimerization or dissociation. This review aims to discuss the melanocortin receptor signaling system and its role in neuroprotection, as well as its therapeutic potential.

Melanocortin receptor agonist NDP-α-MSH improves cognitive deficits and microgliosis but not amyloidosis in advanced stages of AD progression in 5XFAD and 3xTg mice

Introduction

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most frequent cause of dementia and still lacks effective therapy. Clinical signs of AD include low levels of endogenous melanocortins (MCs) and previous studies have shown that treatment with MC analogs induces neuroprotection in the early stages of AD.

Methods

We investigated the neuroprotective role of MCs in two transgenic mouse models of severe AD using 5 and 7 month-old (mo) 5XFAD mice and 9 and 12 mo 3xTg mice. These mice were subjected to a chronic stimulation of MC receptors (MCRs) with MC analogue Nle4-D-Phe7-α-melanocyte stimulating hormone (NDP-α-MSH, 340 μg/kg, i.p.). Mouse behavior and ex-vivo histological and biochemical analyses were performed after 50 days of treatment.

Results

Our analysis demonstrated an improvement in cognitive abilities of AD mice at late stage of AD progression. We also showed that these protective effects are associated with decreased levels of hyperphosphorylated Tau but not with Aβ burden, that was unaffected in the hippocampus and in the cortex of AD mice. In addition, an age-dependent NDP effect on glial reactivity was observed only in 3xTg mice whereas a global downregulation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase was selectively observed in 7 mo 5XFAD and 14 mo 3xTg mice.

Conclusion

Our results suggest that MCR stimulation by NDP-α-MSH could represent a promising therapeutic strategy in managing cognitive decline also at late stage of AD, whereas the effects on neuroinflammation may be restricted to specific stages of AD progression.

miR-124: A Promising Therapeutic Target for Central Nervous System Injuries and Diseases

Central nervous system injuries and diseases, such as ischemic stroke, spinal cord injury, neurodegenerative diseases, glioblastoma, multiple sclerosis, and the resulting neuroinflammation often lead to death or long-term disability. MicroRNAs are small, non-coding, single-stranded RNAs that regulate posttranscriptional gene expression in both physiological and pathological cellular processes, including central nervous system injuries and disorders. Studies on miR-124, one of the most abundant microRNAs in the central nervous system, have shown that its dysregulation is related to the occurrence and development of pathology within the central nervous system. Herein, we review the molecular regulatory functions, underlying mechanisms, and effective delivery methods of miR-124 in the central nervous system, where it is involved in pathological conditions. The review also provides novel insights into the therapeutic target potential of miR-124 in the treatment of human central nervous system injuries or diseases.

Antistress Action of Melanocortin Derivatives Associated with Correction of Gene Expression Patterns in the Hippocampus of Male Rats Following Acute Stress

Natural melanocortins (MCs) have been used in the successful development of drugs with neuroprotective properties. Here, we studied the behavioral effects and molecular genetic mechanisms of two synthetic MC derivatives-ACTH(4-7)PGP (Semax) and ACTH(6-9)PGP under normal and acute restraint stress (ARS) conditions. Administration of Semax or ACTH(6-9)PGP (100 μg/kg) to rats 30 min before ARS attenuated ARS-induced behavioral alterations. Using high-throughput RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq), we identified 1359 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the hippocampus of vehicle-treated rats subjected to ARS, using a cutoff of >1.5 fold change and adjusted p-value (Padj) < 0.05, in samples collected 4.5 h after the ARS. Semax administration produced > 1500 DEGs, whereas ACTH(6-9)PGP administration led to <400 DEGs at 4.5 h after ARS. Nevertheless, ~250 overlapping DEGs were identified, and expression of these DEGs was changed unidirectionally by both peptides under ARS conditions. Modulation of the expression of genes associated with biogenesis, translation of RNA, DNA replication, and immune and nervous system function was produced by both peptides. Furthermore, both peptides upregulated the expression levels of many genes that displayed decreased expression after ARS, and vice versa, the MC peptides downregulated the expression levels of genes that were upregulated by ARS. Consequently, the antistress action of MC peptides may be associated with a correction of gene expression patterns that are disrupted during ARS.

Non-Canonical Effects of ACTH: Insights Into Adrenal Insufficiency

Introduction

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is produced from proopiomelanocortin, which is predominantly synthetized in the corticotroph and melanotroph cells of the anterior and intermediate lobes of the pituitary gland and the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus. Although ACTH clearly has an effect on adrenal homeostasis and maintenance of steroid hormone production, it also has extra-adrenal effects that require further elucidation.

Methods

We comprehensively reviewed English language articles, regardless of whether they reported the presence or absence of adrenal and extra-adrenal ACTH effects.

Results

In the present review, we provide an overview on the current knowledge on adrenal and extra-adrenal effects of ACTH. In the section on adrenal ACTH effects, we focused on corticosteroid rhythmicity and effects on steroidogenesis, mineralocorticoids and adrenal growth. In the section on extra-adrenal effects, we have analyzed the effects of ACTH on the osteoarticular and reproductive systems, adipocytes, immune system, brain and skin. Finally, we focused on adrenal insufficiency.

Conclusions

The role of ACTH in maintaining the function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis is well known. Conversely, if we broaden our vision and analyze its role as a potential treatment strategy in other conditions, it will be evident in the literature that researchers seem to have abandoned this aspect in studies conducted several years ago. We believe it is worth re-evaluating the role of ACTH considering its noncanonical effects on the adrenal gland itself and on extra-adrenal organs and tissues; however, this would not have been possible without the recent advances in the pertinent technologies.

Protective effects of dexmedetomidine on cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury via the microRNA-214/ROCK1/NF-κB axis

BACKGROUND

Cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury (CIRI) is a complication of surgical procedure associated with high mortality. The protective effect of dexmedetomidine (DEX) on CIRI has been explored in previous works, yet the underlying molecular mechanism remains unclear. Our study explored the protective effect of DEX and its regulatory mechanism on CIRI.

METHODS

A CIRI rat model was established using middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). Neurological deficit scores for rats received MCAO modeling or DEX treatment were measured. Cerebral infarction area of rats was detected by TTC staining, while damage of neurons in hippocampal regions of rats was determined by hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining. Apoptosis rate of neurons in hippocampal regions was examined by TUNEL staining. The dual-luciferase assay was performed to detect the binding of microRNA-214 (miR-214) to Rho-associated kinase 1 (ROCK1).

RESULTS

DEX treatment significantly reduced infarction area of MCAO rats and elevated miR-214 expression. Injection of miR-214 inhibitor attenuated the effect of DEX in MCAO rats by increasing the area of cerebral infarction in rats and apoptosis rate of hippocampal neurons. ROCK1 was targeted and negatively regulated by miR-214. The overexpression of ROCK1 led to activation of NF-κB to aggravate CIRI.

CONCLUSION

Therapeutic effects of DEX on CIRI was elicited by overexpressing miR-214 and impairing ROCK1 expression and NF-κB activation. Our finding might provide novel insights into the molecular mechanism of DEX in rats with CIRI.

Brain Protein Expression Profile Confirms the Protective Effect of the ACTH(4-7)PGP Peptide (Semax) in a Rat Model of Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion

The Semax (Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro) peptide is a synthetic melanocortin derivative that is used in the treatment of ischemic stroke. Previously, studies of the molecular mechanisms underlying the actions of Semax using models of cerebral ischemia in rats showed that the peptide enhanced the transcription of neurotrophins and their receptors and modulated the expression of genes involved in the immune response. A genome-wide RNA-Seq analysis revealed that, in the rat transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) model, Semax suppressed the expression of inflammatory genes and activated the expression of neurotransmitter genes. Here, we aimed to evaluate the effect of Semax in this model via the brain expression profiling of key proteins involved in inflammation and cell death processes (MMP-9, c-Fos, and JNK), as well as neuroprotection and recovery (CREB) in stroke. At 24 h after tMCAO, we observed the upregulation of active CREB in subcortical structures, including the focus of the ischemic damage; downregulation of MMP-9 and c-Fos in the adjacent frontoparietal cortex; and downregulation of active JNK in both tissues under the action of Semax. Moreover, a regulatory network was constructed. In conclusion, the suppression of inflammatory and cell death processes and the activation of recovery may contribute to the neuroprotective action of Semax at both the transcriptome and protein levels.

Neuroprotective Effects of Peptides in the Brain: Transcriptome Approach

The importance of studying the action mechanisms of drugs based on natural regulatory peptides is commonly recognized. Particular attention is paid to the peptide drugs that contribute to the restoration of brain functions after acute cerebrovascular accidents (stroke), which for many years continues to be one of the main problems and threats to human health. However, molecular genetic changes in the brain in response to ischemia, as well as the mechanisms of protective effects of peptides, have not been sufficiently studied. This limits the use of neuroprotective peptides and makes it difficult to develop new, more efficient drugs with targeted action on brain functions. Transcriptome analysis is a promising approach for studying the mechanisms of the damaging effects of cerebral ischemia and neuroprotective action of peptide drugs. Beside investigating the role of mRNAs in protein synthesis, the development of new neuroprotection strategies requires studying the involvement of regulatory RNAs in ischemia. Of greatest interest are microRNAs (miRNAs) and circular RNAs (circRNAs), which are expressed predominantly in the brain. CircRNAs can interact with miRNAs and diminish their activity, thereby inhibiting miRNA-mediated repression of mRNAs. It has become apparent that analysis of the circRNA/miRNA/mRNA system is essential for deciphering the mechanisms of brain damage and repair. Here, we present the results of studies on the ischemia-induced changes in the activity of genes and peptide-mediated alterations in the transcriptome profiles in experimental ischemia and formulate the basic principles of peptide regulation in the ischemia-induced damage.

Activation of MC1R with BMS-470539 attenuates neuroinflammation via cAMP/PKA/Nurr1 pathway after neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury in rats

Background

Microglia-mediated neuroinflammation plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of hypoxic-ischemic (HI)-induced brain injury. Activation of melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R) has been shown to exert anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects in several neurological diseases. In the present study, we have explored the role of MC1R activation on neuroinflammation and the potential underlying mechanisms after neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury in rats.

Methods

A total of 169 post-natal day 10 unsexed rat pups were used. HI was induced by right common carotid artery ligation followed by 2.5 h of hypoxia. BMS-470539, a specific selective MC1R agonist, was administered intranasally at 1 h after HI induction. To elucidate the potential underlying mechanism, MC1R CRISPR KO plasmid or Nurr1 CRISPR KO plasmid was administered via intracerebroventricular injection at 48 h before HI induction. Percent brain infarct area, short- and long-term neurobehavioral tests, Nissl staining, immunofluorescence staining, and Western blot were conducted.

Results

The expression levels of MC1R and Nurr1 increased over time post-HI. MC1R and Nurr1 were expressed on microglia at 48 h post-HI. Activation of MC1R with BMS-470539 significantly reduced the percent infarct area, brain atrophy, and inflammation, and improved short- and long-term neurological deficits at 48 h and 28 days post-HI. MC1R activation increased the expression of CD206 (a microglial M2 marker) and reduced the expression of MPO. Moreover, activation of MC1R with BMS-470539 significantly increased the expression levels of MC1R, cAMP, p-PKA, and Nurr1, while downregulating the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNFα, IL-6, and IL-1β) at 48 h post-HI. However, knockout of MC1R or Nurr1 by specific CRISPR reversed the neuroprotective effects of MC1R activation post-HI.

Conclusions

Our study demonstrated that activation of MC1R with BMS-470539 attenuated neuroinflammation, and improved neurological deficits after neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury in rats. Such anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects were mediated, at least in part, via the cAMP/PKA/Nurr1 signaling pathway. Therefore, MC1R activation might be a promising therapeutic target for infants with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE).

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12974-021-02078-2.

Dexmedetomidine-up-regulated microRNA-381 exerts anti-inflammatory effects in rats with cerebral ischaemic injury via the transcriptional factor IRF4

Dexmedetomidine (Dex) possesses analgesic and anaesthetic values and reported being used in cerebral ischaemic injury therapeutics. Accumulating studies have determined the effect of microRNAs (miRNAs) on the cerebral ischaemic injury. Thus, the present study aimed to unravel the molecular mechanism of miR-381 and Dex in cerebral ischaemic injury. For this purpose, the cerebral ischaemic injury rat model was established by induction of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) and expression of miR-381 and IRF4 was determined. Thereafter, MCAO rats were treated with Dex, miR-381 mimic, miR-381 inhibitor and oe-IRF4 respectively, followed by evaluation of neurological function. Furthermore, neuron cells were isolated from the hippocampus of rats and subjected to oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD). Then, OGD-treated neuron cells and primary neuron cells were examined by gain- and loss-of-function assay. Neuron cell apoptosis was detected using TUNEL staining and flow cytometry. The correlation between interferon regulatory factor 4 (IRF4) and interleukin (IL)-9 was detected. Our results showed down-regulated miR-38 and up-regulated IRF4 in MCAO rats. Besides, IRF4 was targeted by miR-381 in neuron cells. Dex and overexpressed miR-381, or silenced IRF4 improved the neurological function and inhibited neuron cell apoptosis in MCAO rats. Additionally, in MCAO rats, Dex was found to increase the miR-381 expression and reduced IRF4 expression to decrease the IL-9 expression, which suppressed the inflammatory response and cell apoptosis both in vivo and in vitro. Importantly, our study demonstrated that Dex elevated the expression of miR-381, which ultimately results in the inhibition of inflammation response in rats with cerebral ischaemic injury.

Mitogen- and stress-activated protein kinase-1 activation is involved in melanocortin-induced BDNF expression in Neuro2a neuronal cells

Melanocortins are neuropeptides exerting versatile functions in the nervous system. Melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R) is primarily expressed in the brain and is thought to be a major mediator for melanocortin. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) may be a crucial downstream molecule of MC4R activation, to yield neurite outgrowth, neuroregenerative, anorexigenic and other actions. In this study, we stimulated Neuro2a murine neuronal cells with an α-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH) analog, [Nle(4), D-Phe(7)]melanocyte-stimulating hormone (NDP-MSH). In Neuro2a cells, NDP-MSH promoted neurite outgrowth. Upon NDP-MSH administration, BDNF expression was greatly enhanced. Furthermore, this effect was effectively reversed by the MC4R antagonist, JKC-363. We found that NDP-MSH treatment activated the ERK cascade and its downstream kinase MSK1 (mitogen- and stress-activated protein kinase-1). Antagonism of the MSK1 cascade by a specific inhibitor or overexpression of a defective MSK1 mutant interrupted the phosphorylation of the transcription factor cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB), blocking BDNF upregulation. In addition, MSK1 activation triggered an epigenetic alteration in histone H3 (Ser10), facilitating the expression of the BDNF gene. Taken together, our results showed that MSK1 kinase positively activates MC4R-induced BDNF expression via modulating the phosphorylation of CREB and histone H3 in Neuro2a neuronal cells.

Glia and Neural Stem and Progenitor Cells of the Healthy and Ischemic Brain: The Workplace for the Wnt Signaling Pathway

Wnt signaling plays an important role in the self-renewal, fate-commitment and survival of the neural stem/progenitor cells (NS/PCs) of the adult central nervous system (CNS). Ischemic stroke impairs the proper functioning of the CNS and, therefore, active Wnt signaling may prevent, ameliorate, or even reverse the negative effects of ischemic brain injury. In this review, we provide the current knowledge of Wnt signaling in the adult CNS, its status in diverse cell types, and the Wnt pathway’s impact on the properties of NS/PCs and glial cells in the context of ischemic injury. Finally, we summarize promising strategies that might be considered for stroke therapy, and we outline possible future directions of the field.

Pharmacotranscriptomics of peptide drugs with neuroprotective properties

Here we present a review of studies on the effects of peptides with neuroprotective properties on gene transcription in nerve cells. The few published works in this area clearly demonstrate massive changes in cell transcriptomes induced by peptides under normal conditions and under conditions of experimental brain ischemia. These changes significantly affect signaling and metabolic pathways, affecting various body systems and confirming the multiple target actions of peptides. The importance of noncoding RNAs in the regulation of these processes is shown, and we discuss the prospects of research for determining the main mechanisms of peptide regulation, which is necessary for the further development of drugs with targeted neuroprotective effects.

Novel Insights into the Protective Properties of ACTH(4-7)PGP (Semax) Peptide at the Transcriptome Level Following Cerebral Ischaemia-Reperfusion in Rats

Cerebral ischaemia is the most common cause of impaired brain function. Biologically active peptides represent potential drugs for reducing the damage that occurs after ischaemia. The synthetic melanocortin derivative, ACTH_(4-7)PGP (Semax), has been used successfully in the treatment of patients with severe impairment of cerebral blood circulation. However, its molecular mechanisms of action within the brain are not yet fully understood. Previously, we used the transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) model to study the damaging effects of ischaemia-reperfusion on the brain transcriptome in rats. Here, using RNA-Seq analysis, we investigated the protective properties of the Semax peptide at the transcriptome level under tMCAO conditions. We have identified 394 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) (>1.5-fold change) in the brains of rats at 24 h after tMCAO treated with Semax relative to saline. Following tMCAO, we found that Semax suppressed the expression of genes related to inflammatory processes and activated the expression of genes related to neurotransmission. In contrast, ischaemia-reperfusion alone activated the expression of inflammation-related genes and suppressed the expression of neurotransmission-related genes. Therefore, the neuroprotective action of Semax may be associated with a compensation of mRNA expression patterns that are disrupted during ischaemia-reperfusion conditions.

The Panomics Approach in Neurodegenerative Disorders

BACKGROUND

The molecular genetic technologies revolutionized the diagnostics of many disorders. Thanks to the new molecular techniques and the rapid improvement of the information technologies the number of mendelien inherited disorders has increased rapidly in the last five years. The omics era brought radical changes in the understanding of complex disorders and the underlying pathomechanisms. However, in most complex disorders the genome wide association studies could not clarify the genetic background even for disorders where a very strong heritability had been observed.

OBJECTIVE

In this paper the changing concept of the neurodegenerative disorders is discussed. The traditional classification of these disorders was purely based on clinical symptoms and morphological signs in the last century. Identifying the signature lesions of various neurodegenerative disorders may reveal a common pathological pathway in these disorders. New neuroimaging methods provided additional tools to assess pathological pathways in vivo already in the early stages of the diseases. Visualizing in vivo amyloid deposits and neuroinflammation improved our understanding of their role in various neurodegenerative disorders. Genetics may be the most precise way to identify the background of these disorders. However, there is only limited number of cases where true association can be proved between the disorder and the genetic mutations. Most of the neurodegenerative disorders seem to be multifactorial and cannot be traced back to one single cause.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, shifting from a classification based on symptomatology only to a modern multidisciplinary approach, based on the constantly evolving panomics findings, would improve our understanding of neurodegenerative diseases and could be the basis of novel therapeutic research.

The impact of anorexigenic peptides in experimental models of Alzheimer's disease pathology

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder in the elderly population. Numerous epidemiological and experimental studies have demonstrated that patients who suffer from obesity or type 2 diabetes mellitus have a higher risk of cognitive dysfunction and AD. Several recent studies demonstrated that food intake-lowering (anorexigenic) peptides have the potential to improve metabolic disorders and that they may also potentially be useful in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, the neuroprotective effects of anorexigenic peptides of both peripheral and central origins are discussed. Moreover, the role of leptin as a key modulator of energy homeostasis is discussed in relation to its interaction with anorexigenic peptides and their analogs in AD-like pathology. Although there is no perfect experimental model of human AD pathology, animal studies have already proven that anorexigenic peptides exhibit neuroprotective properties. This phenomenon is extremely important for the potential development of new drugs in view of the aging of the human population and of the significantly increasing incidence of AD.

Small Molecule Neuropeptide S and Melanocortin 4 Receptor Ligands as Potential Treatments for Substance Use Disorders

There is a vital need for novel approaches and biological targets for drug discovery and development. Treatment strategies for substance use disorders (SUDs) to date have been mostly ineffective other than substitution-like therapeutics. Two such targets are the peptide G-protein-coupled receptors neuropeptide S (NPS) and melanocortin 4 (MC4). Preclinical evidence suggests that antagonists, inverse agonists, or negative allosteric modulators of these receptors might be novel therapeutics for SUDs. NPS is a relatively unexplored receptor with high potential for treating SUD. MC4 has a strong link to early-onset obesity, and emerging evidence suggests significant overlap between food-maintained and drug-maintained behaviors making MC4 an intriguing target for SUD. This chapter provides an overview of the literature in relation to the roles of NPS and MC4 in drug-seeking behaviors and then provides a medicinal chemistry-based survey of the small molecule ligands for each receptor.

Activation of melanocortin receptor 4 with RO27-3225 attenuates neuroinflammation through AMPK/JNK/p38 MAPK pathway after intracerebral hemorrhage in mice

Background

Neuroinflammation plays an important role in the pathogenesis of intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH)-induced secondary brain injury. Activation of melanocortin receptor 4 (MC4R) has been shown to elicit anti-inflammatory effects in many diseases. The objective of this study was to explore the role of MC4R activation on neuroinflammation in a mouse ICH model and to investigate the contribution of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK)/c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)/p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) pathway in MC4R-mediated protection.

Methods

Adult male CD1 mice (n = 189) were subjected to intrastriatal injection of bacterial collagenase or sham surgery. The selective MC4R agonist RO27-3225 was administered by intraperitoneal injection at 1 h after collagenase injection. The specific MC4R antagonist HS024 and selective AMPK inhibitor dorsomorphin were administered prior to RO27-3225 treatment to elucidate potential mechanism. Short- and long-term neurobehavioral assessments, brain water content, immunofluorescence staining, and western blot were performed.

Results

The expression of MC4R and p-AMPK increased after ICH with a peak at 24 h. MC4R was expressed by microglia, neurons, and astrocytes. Activation of MC4R with RO27-3225 improved the neurobehavioral functions, decreased brain edema, and suppressed microglia/macrophage activation and neutrophil infiltration after ICH. RO27-3225 administration increased the expression of MC4R and p-AMPK while decreasing p-JNK, p-p38 MAPK, TNF-α, and IL-1β expression, which was reversed with inhibition of MC4R and AMPK.

Conclusions

Our study demonstrated that activation of MC4R with RO27-3225 attenuated neuroinflammation through AMPK-dependent inhibition of JNK and p38 MAPK signaling pathway, thereby reducing brain edema and improving neurobehavioral functions after experimental ICH in mice. Therefore, the activation of MC4R with RO27-3225 may be a potential therapeutic approach for ICH management.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12974-018-1140-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Modulation of GABA- and Glycine-Activated Ionic Currents with Semax in Isolated Cerebral Neurons

The concentration-clamp experiments with neurons isolated from the rat brain showed that nootropic and neuroprotective drug Semax added to perfusion solution at concentration of 1 μM augmented the amplitude of GABA-activated ionic currents in cerebellum Purkinje cells by 147±13%. In addition, Semax in perfusion solution (0.1 and 1 μM) diminished the amplitude of glycine-activated chloride currents in hippocampal pyramidal neurons down to 68 and 43% control level, respectively. Both potentiating and inhibitory effects developed slowly, and they were poorly reversible, which indicated a probable implication of second messengers in the observed phenomena. Semax accelerated the falling edge of glycine-activated current both after a short-term co-application with agonist and after addition of this peptide into perfusion solution.

Triggering Receptor Expressed on Myeloid Cells 2 Overexpression Inhibits Proinflammatory Cytokines in Lipopolysaccharide-Stimulated Microglia

Microglia play an important role in mediating inflammatory processes in the central nervous system (CNS). Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) is a microglia-specific receptor and could decrease neuropathology in Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the detailed mechanism remains unclear. This study was designed to elucidate the effect of TREM2 on microglia. We showed that lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation significantly increases proinflammatory cytokines and suppressed TREM2 in microglia. In addition, TREM2 overexpression inhibited LPS-induced microglia activation and elevated M2 phenotype of microglia. Together, our results demonstrate that TREM2 overexpression reduced LPS-induced proinflammatory cytokine release in microglia and increased M2 phenotype of microglia. These findings provide novel insights that the regulation of microglia polarization may be an approach for ameliorating microglia inflammation in neurodegenerative diseases.

Melanocortins, Melanocortin Receptors and Multiple Sclerosis

The melanocortins and their receptors have been extensively investigated for their roles in the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis, but to a lesser extent in immune cells and in the nervous system outside the hypothalamic axis. This review discusses corticosteroid dependent and independent effects of melanocortins on the peripheral immune system, central nervous system (CNS) effects mediated through neuronal regulation of immune system function, and direct effects on endogenous cells in the CNS. We have focused on the expression and function of melanocortin receptors in oligodendroglia (OL), the myelin producing cells of the CNS, with the goal of identifying new therapeutic approaches to decrease CNS damage in multiple sclerosis as well as to promote repair. It is clear that melanocortin signaling through their receptors in the CNS has potential for neuroprotection and repair in diseases like MS. Effects of melanocortins on the immune system by direct effects on the circulating cells (lymphocytes and monocytes) and by signaling through CNS cells in regions lacking a mature blood brain barrier are clear. However, additional studies are needed to develop highly effective MCR targeted therapies that directly affect endogenous cells of the CNS, particularly OL, their progenitors and neurons.

Systemic N-terminal fragments of adrenocorticotropin reduce inflammation- and stress-induced anhedonia in rats

Emerging evidence implicates impaired self-regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and inflammation as important and closely related components of the pathophysiology of major depression. Antidepressants show anti-inflammatory effects and are suggested to enhance glucocorticoid feedback inhibition of the HPA axis. HPA axis activity is also negatively self-regulated by the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), a potent anti-inflammatory peptide activating five subtypes of melanocortin receptors (MCRs). There are indications that ACTH-mediated feedback can be activated by noncorticotropic N-terminal ACTH fragments such as a potent anti-inflammatory MC1/3/4/5R agonist α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH), corresponding to ACTH(1-13), and a MC3/5R agonist ACTH(4-10). We investigated whether intraperitoneal administration of rats with these peptides affects anhedonia, which is a core symptom of depression. Inflammation-related anhedonia was induced by a single intraperitoneal administration of a low dose (0.025mg/kg) of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Stress-related anhedonia was induced by the chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) procedure. The sucrose preference test was used to detect anhedonia. We found that ACTH(4-10) pretreatment decreased LPS-induced increase in serum corticosterone and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and a MC3/4R antagonist SHU9119 blocked this effect. Both α-MSH and ACTH(4-10) alleviated LPS-induced anhedonia. In the CUS model, these peptides reduced anhedonia and normalized body weight gain. The data indicate that systemic α-MSH and ACTH(4-10) produce an antidepressant-like effect on anhedonia induced by stress or inflammation, the stimuli that trigger the release of ACTH and α-MSH into the bloodstream. The results suggest a counterbalancing role of circulating melanocortins in depression and point to a new approach for antidepressant treatment.

New Implications for the Melanocortin System in Alcohol Drinking Behavior in Adolescents: The Glial Dysfunction Hypothesis

Alcohol dependence causes physical, social, and moral harms and currently represents an important public health concern. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), alcoholism is the third leading cause of death worldwide, after tobacco consumption and hypertension. Recent epidemiologic studies have shown a growing trend in alcohol abuse among adolescents, characterized by the consumption of large doses of alcohol over a short time period. Since brain development is an ongoing process during adolescence, short- and long-term brain damage associated with drinking behavior could lead to serious consequences for health and wellbeing. Accumulating evidence indicates that alcohol impairs the function of different components of the melanocortin system, a major player involved in the consolidation of addictive behaviors during adolescence and adulthood. Here, we hypothesize the possible implications of melanocortins and glial cells in the onset and progression of alcohol addiction. In particular, we propose that alcohol-induced decrease in α-MSH levels may trigger a cascade of glial inflammatory pathways that culminate in altered gliotransmission in the ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens (NAc). The latter might potentiate dopaminergic drive in the NAc, contributing to increase the vulnerability to alcohol dependence and addiction in the adolescence and adulthood.