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Zhao S, Liu M, Meng X, Liu A, Duo L. Waste rubber - Black pollution reframed as a global issue: Ecological challenges and sustainability initiatives. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 356:124291. [PMID: 38823550 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.124291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2024] [Revised: 05/07/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/03/2024]
Abstract
In contrast to "white pollution" originating from waste plastics, waste rubber is often referred to as "black pollution." The quantity and variety of waste rubber are increasing at an alarming rate, with a considerable fraction entering the global ecosystem via various pathways. This study presents the first critical review of waste rubber research with a focus on the risks associated with toxicant discharge and existing problems in waste rubber disposal, management, and recycling practices. We aim to obtain a comprehensive understanding of current research, particularly regarding the ecological impacts of these wastes, highlight major gaps, and propose the most significant research directions. A total of 192 studies published in journals were critically analysed. The importance of conducting long-term and large-scale experiments and developing efficient waste rubber recycling systems is also emphasised. This study highlights the need to address the challenges posed by waste rubber pollution and offers insights and references for undertaking ecological risk assessments and understanding the mechanisms underlying toxicant behaviour. Suggestions and countermeasures are proposed with ecosystem sustainability as the ultimate goal. Further long-term, comprehensive, and systematic research in this area is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shulan Zhao
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance, College of Life Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, 300387, China
| | - Menghan Liu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance, College of Life Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, 300387, China
| | - Xiuying Meng
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance, College of Life Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, 300387, China
| | - Anran Liu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance, College of Life Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, 300387, China
| | - Li'an Duo
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Animal and Plant Resistance, College of Life Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, 300387, China.
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2
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Zor M, Şen F, Candan Z, Ivanov E, Batakliev T, Georgiev V, Menseidov D. Preparation and Characterization of Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)/Carbonized Waste Rubber Biocomposite Films. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:1050. [PMID: 38674970 PMCID: PMC11054524 DOI: 10.3390/polym16081050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2024] [Revised: 03/23/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The technological properties of composite materials (thermal, strength, rheology, electrical and morphology) are very important parameters for high-performance applications. In this study, we aimed to improve the properties of PVA by using carbon materials obtained by the pyrolysis of waste tires, with the aim of recycling them instead of disposing of them. For this purpose, PVA biocomposite films containing carbonized waste rubber at different rates were prepared. The thermal properties of the prepared biocomposite films were examined via thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) methods. While rheological measurements were carried out with a rheometer, bulk conductivities were measured with a pico-ammeter. In addition, the morphology of biocomposite films was determined via field emission scanning electron microscopy. The nanomechanical properties of biocomposite film was investigated via XPM analyses. According to the rheological measurements and nanoindentation hardness results, it is understood that as the amount of carbonized waste rubber increases, flexibility decreases and harder and brittle structures are observed in biocomposite films. The electrical measurement results showed that electrical conductivity increased as the amount of carbonized waste rubber increased. When all the results obtained were evaluated, it could be concluded that biocomposite films obtained by increasing the electrical conductivity and hardness of PVA can be used in the electronics industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mustafa Zor
- Department of Nanotechnology Engineering, Zonguldak Bülent Ecevit University, 67100 Zonguldak, Türkiye;
- Biomaterials and Nanotechnology Research Group & BioNanoTeam, 34473 İstanbul, Türkiye;
| | - Ferhat Şen
- Department of Nanotechnology Engineering, Zonguldak Bülent Ecevit University, 67100 Zonguldak, Türkiye;
| | - Zeki Candan
- Biomaterials and Nanotechnology Research Group & BioNanoTeam, 34473 İstanbul, Türkiye;
- Department of Forest Industrial Engineering, İstanbul University-Cerrahpasa, 34473 İstanbul, Türkiye
| | - Evgeni Ivanov
- Institute of Mechanics, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria; (E.I.); (T.B.); (V.G.); (D.M.)
| | - Todor Batakliev
- Institute of Mechanics, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria; (E.I.); (T.B.); (V.G.); (D.M.)
| | - Vladimir Georgiev
- Institute of Mechanics, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria; (E.I.); (T.B.); (V.G.); (D.M.)
| | - Dzhihan Menseidov
- Institute of Mechanics, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria; (E.I.); (T.B.); (V.G.); (D.M.)
- Department of Telecommunications, University of Telecommunication and Post, 1700 Sofia, Bulgaria
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3
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Thuong NT, Quang LD, Cuong VQ, Ha CH, Lam NB, Kawahara S. Modification of graphene oxide and its effect on properties of natural rubber/graphene oxide nanocomposites. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2024; 15:168-179. [PMID: 38352717 PMCID: PMC10862129 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.15.16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
Modification of graphene oxide (GO) by vinyltriethoxysilane (VTES) was investigated to study the effect of silanized GO on radical graft copolymerization of GO onto deproteinized natural rubber (DPNR). The modified GO, GO-VTES (a and b), was characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, contact angle, thermal gravimetric analysis, and scanning electron microscopy. The XRD results showed the appearance of an amorphous region of silica particles at a diffraction angle of 22°. The formation of silica was investigated by 29Si NMR, and it was found that the hydrolysis and condensation of VTES proceed more completely in basic conditions than in acidic conditions. The silica content of GO-VTES(b) was 43%, which is higher than that of GO-VTES(a) (8%). Morphology of silica was observed by SEM. The DPNR/GO-VTES nanocomposites prepared with the same amount of GO, GO-VTES(a), and GO-VTES(b) were characterized with tensile tests and dynamic mechanical tests. The stress at break of DPNR/GO-VTES(a) and DPNR/GO-VTES(b) was 5.2 MPa and 4.3 MPa, respectively, which were lower than that of DPNR/GO. However, it exhibited higher stress at small strains and higher storage modulus than DPNR/GO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nghiem Thi Thuong
- School of Chemical Engineering, Hanoi University of Science and Technology, No 1 Dai co Viet, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Le Dinh Quang
- School of Chemical Engineering, Hanoi University of Science and Technology, No 1 Dai co Viet, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Vu Quoc Cuong
- School of Chemical Engineering, Hanoi University of Science and Technology, No 1 Dai co Viet, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Cao Hong Ha
- School of Chemical Engineering, Hanoi University of Science and Technology, No 1 Dai co Viet, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Nguyen Ba Lam
- School of Chemical Engineering, Hanoi University of Science and Technology, No 1 Dai co Viet, Hanoi, Vietnam
- Faculty of Engineering, Nagaoka University of Technology, 1603-1, Kamitomioka-machi, Nagaoka, Niigata 940-2188, Japan
| | - Seiichi Kawahara
- Faculty of Engineering, Nagaoka University of Technology, 1603-1, Kamitomioka-machi, Nagaoka, Niigata 940-2188, Japan
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Guo L, Bai L, Zhao J, Liu K, Jian X, Chai H, Liu F, Guo S, Liu G, Liu H. Enhancing Devulcanizing Degree and Efficiency of Reclaimed Rubber by Using Alcoholic Amines as the Devulcanizing Agent in Low-Temperature Mechano-Chemical Process. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:395. [PMID: 38337284 DOI: 10.3390/polym16030395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Revised: 01/07/2024] [Accepted: 01/27/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Low-temperature mechanical chemical devulcanization is a process that can produce reclaimed rubber with exceptional mechanical properties. However, the inadequacy and low efficiency of the devulcanization have significantly restricted its application. To address the issues, alcoholic amines, including hydroxyethyl ethylenediamine (AEEA), ethanolamine (ETA), and diethanol amine (DEA), are utilized as devulcanizing agents to promote the devulcanization process. Careful characterizations are conducted to reveal the devulcanizing mechanism and to depict the performances of reclaimed rubbers. Results show that the amine groups in the devulcanizing agents can react with sulfur after the crosslink bonds are broken by mechanical shear force, thus blocking the activity of sulfur and introducing hydroxyl groups into the rubber chains. The incorporation of alcoholic amines can enhance the devulcanizing degree and devulcanizing efficiency, reduce the Mooney viscosity, and improve the mechanical and anti-aging performance. When using DEA as the devulcanizing agent, the sol content of reclaimed rubber increases from 13.1% to 22.4%, the devulcanization ratio increases from 82.1% to 89.0%, the Mooney viscosity decreases from 135.5 to 83.6, the tensile strength improves from 14.7 MPa to 16.3 MPa, the retention rate of tensile strength raises from 55.2% to 82.6% after aging for 72 h, while the devulcanization time is shortened from 21 min to 9.5 min, compared with that without using alcoholic amines. Therefore, alcoholic amines exhibit remarkable advantages in the devulcanization of waste rubber, thus indicating a promising direction for the advancement of research in the area of waste rubber reclamation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Guo
- College of Electromechanical Engineering, Qingdao University of Science & Technology, Qingdao 266061, China
- Sino-Thai International Rubber College, Qingdao University of Science & Technology, Qingdao 266061, China
| | - Lichen Bai
- College of Electromechanical Engineering, Qingdao University of Science & Technology, Qingdao 266061, China
| | - Jinyang Zhao
- College of Electromechanical Engineering, Qingdao University of Science & Technology, Qingdao 266061, China
| | - Kexin Liu
- College of Electromechanical Engineering, Qingdao University of Science & Technology, Qingdao 266061, China
| | - Xingao Jian
- College of Electromechanical Engineering, Qingdao University of Science & Technology, Qingdao 266061, China
| | - Hailin Chai
- College of Electromechanical Engineering, Qingdao University of Science & Technology, Qingdao 266061, China
| | - Fumin Liu
- College of Electromechanical Engineering, Qingdao University of Science & Technology, Qingdao 266061, China
| | - Shouyun Guo
- College of Electromechanical Engineering, Qingdao University of Science & Technology, Qingdao 266061, China
| | - Gongxu Liu
- College of Electromechanical Engineering, Qingdao University of Science & Technology, Qingdao 266061, China
| | - Haichao Liu
- National Engineering Research Center of Advanced Tire Equipment and Key Materials, Qingdao University of Science & Technology, Qingdao 266061, China
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Cui C, Jiang M, Zhang C, Zhang N, Jin FJ, Li T, Lee HG, Jin L. Assembly strategies for rubber-degrading microbial consortia based on omics tools. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1326395. [PMID: 38125306 PMCID: PMC10731047 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1326395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Numerous microorganisms, including bacteria and fungus, have been identified as capable of degrading rubber. Rubber biodegradation is still understudied due to its high stability and the lack of well-defined pathways and efficient enzymes involved in microorganism metabolism. However, rubber products manufacture and usage cause substantial environmental issues, and present physical-chemical methods involve dangerous chemical solvents, massive energy, and trash with health hazards. Eco-friendly solutions are required in this context, and biotechnological rubber treatment offers considerable promise. The structural and functional enzymes involved in poly (cis-1,4-isoprene) rubber and their cleavage mechanisms have been extensively studied. Similarly, novel bacterial strains capable of degrading polymers have been investigated. In contrast, relatively few studies have been conducted to establish natural rubber (NR) degrading bacterial consortia based on metagenomics, considering process optimization, cost effective approaches and larger scale experiments seeking practical and realistic applications. In light of the obstacles encountered during the constructing NR-degrading consortia, this study proposes the utilization of multi-omics tools to discern the underlying mechanisms and metabolites of rubber degradation, as well as associated enzymes and effective synthesized microbial consortia. In addition, the utilization of omics tool-based methods is suggested as a primary research direction for the development of synthesized microbial consortia in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengda Cui
- Co-Innovation Centre for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, College of Ecology and Environment, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Mengke Jiang
- Co-Innovation Centre for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, College of Ecology and Environment, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Chengxiao Zhang
- Co-Innovation Centre for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, College of Ecology and Environment, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Naxue Zhang
- Co-Innovation Centre for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, College of Ecology and Environment, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Feng-Jie Jin
- Co-Innovation Centre for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, College of Ecology and Environment, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Taihua Li
- Co-Innovation Centre for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, College of Ecology and Environment, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Hyung-Gwan Lee
- Cell Factory Research Centre, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Long Jin
- Co-Innovation Centre for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, College of Ecology and Environment, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
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Zhou X, Zhai Y, Zhang T, Li Z, Cheng Z, Li C, Xu T, Hong J. Uncovering the energy-carbon-water footprint of waste rubber recycling: Integrated environmental and economic perspectives. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2023; 345:118916. [PMID: 37690244 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.118916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
The commitment to waste management has gained increasing momentum as global waste generation continues to skyrocket and threaten the environment. However, detailed assessments and clear insights remain absent to address the global waste utilization conundrum. This study evaluated the impact-oriented energy, carbon, and water (ECW) footprints of three typical scenarios for a waste recycling activity (i.e., waste rubber recycling) from environmental and economic dimensions, and explored key factors, nexus characteristics, and optimization measures. Results indicated that the rubber powder as an asphalt modifier scenario had a 93% greater environmental impact and 87% higher economic cost compared with the pyrolysis and reclaimed rubber production scenarios. Key processes, such as direct processes, electricity generation, and transportation, were identified as the major contributors to the ECW footprints, with the internal costs of raw materials, equipment, and taxes coupled with the external costs of human health dominating the economic impact. The nexus analysis results highlighted the urgent need to optimize the energy system for waste rubber recycling. Greening the production process revealed the benefits, with natural additives mitigating 85% of the environmental burden and 97% of the external costs compared with conventional additives. Industrial green microgrids, clean energy generation, proximity waste management, and electrified transportation were explored to foster sustainable optimization of waste rubber recycling systems. Moreover, a joint tax-subsidy mechanism for rubber production-recycling systems can stimulate recycling-oriented product design and increase the motivation to recycle waste rubber.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinying Zhou
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Environmental Processes and Health, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Yijie Zhai
- Shandong Academy of Macroeconomic Research, Jinan, 250014, China
| | - Tianzuo Zhang
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Environmental Processes and Health, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Ziheng Li
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Environmental Processes and Health, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Ziyue Cheng
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Environmental Processes and Health, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Changting Li
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Environmental Processes and Health, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Tianshu Xu
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Environmental Processes and Health, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Jinglan Hong
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Environmental Processes and Health, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China; Shandong University Climate Change and Health Center, Public Health School, Shandong University, Jinan, 250012, China.
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7
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Żuk D, Abramczyk N, Charchalis A. Analysis of the Impact of Rubber Recyclate Addition to the Matrix on the Strength Properties of Epoxy-Glass Composites. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:3374. [PMID: 37631432 PMCID: PMC10459168 DOI: 10.3390/polym15163374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Revised: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 08/05/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Currently, there is a noticeable trend of modifying new materials by using additives from the recycling of harmful waste. This is to protect the environment by using waste to produce composites and at the same time to reduce the cost of their production. The article presents an analysis of the impact of the use of rubber recyclate obtained from the utilization of car tires as a sandwich layer of epoxy-glass composites and its impact on the strength parameters of the composite. The presented research is an extension of the previously conducted analyses on composite materials modified with the addition of rubber recyclate. The four variants of the materials produced contained the same percentage amount of rubber recyclate, but differed in the way it was distributed and the number of layers. Static tensile tests as well as impact strength and kinetics of damage to samples made with and without the addition of recyclate were carried out. Observation of the structures of the materials with the use of SEM was also performed. A significant influence of the method of distributing the recyclate in layers on the strength parameters of the materials was found. In the case of composites with three and two sandwich layers of recyclate, more favorable results were obtained compared to the blank sample. In addition, the values of the impact strength measurements were subjected to statistical analysis at the significance level of α = 95%. The distributions were tested for normality with the Shapiro-Wilk test, differences between pairs were tested with the Student's t-test for dependent groups, and ANOVA differences were tested for independent groups. Using the Student's t-test, it was confirmed that between the pairs of variables in the configurations reference sample and modified sample, there were significant statistical differences in the distribution of impact strength measurement results for all the analyzed materials. Statistical analysis showed a significant usefulness in the selection of the material with the best strength parameters and a significant role of statistical methods in the study of anisotropic materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria Żuk
- Faculty of Marine Engineering, Gdynia Maritime University, 81-225 Gdynia, Poland; (N.A.); (A.C.)
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Cheng X, Xia M, Yang Y. Biodegradation of vulcanized rubber by a gut bacterium from plastic-eating mealworms. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 448:130940. [PMID: 36758440 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.130940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2022] [Revised: 01/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The disposal of vulcanized rubber waste is difficult due to the presence of three-dimensional crosslinking network structure. Here, we report that a bacterium Acinetobacter sp. BIT-H3, isolated from the gut of plastic-eating mealworm, can grow on and degrade vulcanized poly(cis-1,4-isoprene) rubber (vPR). Scanning electronic microscopy (SEM) shows that strain BIT-H3 can penetrate into the vPR and produce craters and cracks. The tensile strength and the crosslink density of vPR decreased by 53.2% and 29.3% after ten weeks' incubation, respectively. The results of Horikx analysis, attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy, and X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy reveal that strain BIT-H3 can break down both sulfide bridges and double bonds of polymeric backbone within vPR. Sulfate and oligo(cis-1,4 isoprene) with terminal aldehyde and keto groups were identified as metabolic products released during vPR degradation. Through genomic and transcriptional analyses, five enzymes of dszA, dszC1, dszC2, Laccase2147, and Peroxidase1232 were found to be responsible for vPR degradation. Based on the chemical structure characterizations and molecular analyses, a vPR biodegradation pathway was proposed for strain BIT-H3. These findings pave a way for exploiting vulcanized rubber-degrading microorganisms from insect gut and contribute to establish a biodegradation method for vulcanized rubber waste disposal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaotao Cheng
- Department of Biology, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, PR China
| | - Mengli Xia
- Department of Biology, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, PR China
| | - Yu Yang
- Department of Biology, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, PR China.
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Lai S, Cheng C, Liao Y, Su X, Tan Q, Yang S, Bai S. The structure and properties of mechanochemically modified acrylonitrile butadiene rubber (NBR)/poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC) scraps and fresh NBR composites. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2023; 159:93-101. [PMID: 36739710 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2023.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Revised: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Vulcanized acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber (NBR)/poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC) blends are mainly served as insulation rubber-plastic materials. However, methods to reuse the waste NBR/PVC composites lack research. Here, we found that the mechanochemically modified waste NBR/PVC composites powders (WNPP) could be an alternative to fresh NBR. According to the results, the optimal replacement amount of WNPP for NBR was 20%, and the highest feasible proportion was 40%. WNPP treated by solid-state shear milling technology (S3M) would have a high degree of desulfurization, and the cross-linked chains within WNPP would be transformed into free chains. While co-vulcanizing, the sulfur agents and heat would induce the free chains of WNPP to react with the polymer chains of the NBR substrate, thereby generating dangling chains to form a robust interfacial layer. It was beneficial for the improvement of the mechanical properties of reclaimed products. And the strain of the excellent recycled sample (20C) reached 707%. Moreover, the modified WNPP in the co-vulcanized rubber represented heterogeneity because of the internal residual crosslinked network and the not-melting PVC plastic phase. Although the heterogeneity of WNPP damaged the continuity of the NBR matrix, it also brought a better hysteresis loss capability to the composite. In conclusion, this work expanded the mechanochemical application scope in recycling NBR/PVC wastes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuangxin Lai
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
| | - Chaofeng Cheng
- High-Tech Organic Fibers Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Yi Liao
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
| | - Xingrui Su
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
| | - Qianyue Tan
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
| | - Shuangqiao Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
| | - Shibing Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China.
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10
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Lai S, Cheng C, Yuan B, Liao Y, Su X, Bai S. Mechanochemical reclaiming and thermoplastic re-processing of waste Acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber (NBR)/poly (Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) insulation materials. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2023; 158:153-163. [PMID: 36709681 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2023.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2022] [Revised: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Cross-linked acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber (NBR)/poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) blends are extensively served as commercial insulation foams. However, methods to reclaim the wasted NBR/PVC composites are usually inappropriate, causing severe pollution. Herein, we reported that the waste NBR/PVC composites powders (WNPP) with high thermal stability and degree of reclaiming were prepared by solid-state shear milling technology (S3M). Furthermore, the reclaimed products via thermoplastic re-processing had excellent mechanical properties, and the optimal stress and strain were increased by 208.2 % and 269.4 %, respectively, compared with the products made from virgin scraps. Through the investigation of each sample's molecular chains and thermal properties, it was found that when the cross-linked polar rubber-plastic composites are reclaimed, the molecular chains of the rubber phase would be close to each other. The interaction among polar groups would be enhanced, which is the main contributing factor limiting the movability of the polymer chains. And the interaction between the polar rubber and plastic phases would also increase, which is beneficial for the compatibility of the two phases. Moreover, there is a phase separation between the de-crosslinked continuous phase and the residual cross-linked network region for the re-processing products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuangxin Lai
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
| | - Chaofeng Cheng
- High-Tech Organic Fibers Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Bin Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
| | - Yi Liao
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
| | - Xingrui Su
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
| | - Shibing Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China.
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11
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Si X, Luo M, Li M, Ma Y, Huang Y, Ge Y. Magnetic properties of a soft magnetic elastomer based on antioxidant magnetic composite particles and a water-soluble polymer matrix. SOFT MATTER 2023; 19:1008-1016. [PMID: 36647597 DOI: 10.1039/d2sm01426b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
A soft magnetic elastomer, called a magnetorheological elastomer (MRE), based on a polyacrylamide (PAM) modified carbonyl iron particle (P-CIP) composite and a water-soluble PAM matrix was designed and prepared by the chemical polymerization and crosslinking method. P-CIPs were synthesized by the polymerization of an acrylamide monomer on the CIP surface to improve the oxidation resistance of CIPs and the interaction between the particles and polymer matrix in the MRE. The results obtained from infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) (in a nitrogen atmosphere) show that the coating effect of the polymer on the particle surface is very good. TGA (in an air atmosphere) curves indicate that the P-CIPs show strong oxidation resistance. Meanwhile, the test results obtained for the magnetic properties show that the MRE with P-CIPs has a saturation magnetization (94.7 emu g-1), a relative magnetorheological effect (687.5%), and a Payne effect factor (92%) under the action of a strong magnetic field (1 T). It was also clearly found that these properties are enhanced with increasing magnetic field intensity. Furthermore, the chain effect of magnetic particles under a magnetic field, the strong particle-matrix interaction and its breakdown process with increasing shear strain were discussed in this work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaodong Si
- School of Petroleum Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao, Shandong 266580, China.
- Key Laboratory of Unconventional Oil and Gas Development (China University of Petroleum (East China)), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, Shandong 266580, China
| | - Mingliang Luo
- School of Petroleum Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao, Shandong 266580, China.
- Key Laboratory of Unconventional Oil and Gas Development (China University of Petroleum (East China)), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, Shandong 266580, China
| | - Mingzhong Li
- School of Petroleum Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao, Shandong 266580, China.
- Key Laboratory of Unconventional Oil and Gas Development (China University of Petroleum (East China)), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, Shandong 266580, China
| | - Yuben Ma
- Oilfield Production Department, China Oilfield Services Limited, Tianjin 300451, China
| | - Yige Huang
- School of Petroleum Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao, Shandong 266580, China.
- Key Laboratory of Unconventional Oil and Gas Development (China University of Petroleum (East China)), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, Shandong 266580, China
| | - Yunzhi Ge
- School of Petroleum Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao, Shandong 266580, China.
- Key Laboratory of Unconventional Oil and Gas Development (China University of Petroleum (East China)), Ministry of Education, Qingdao, Shandong 266580, China
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12
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Cataldo F. Thermochemistry of Sulfur-Based Vulcanization and of Devulcanized and Recycled Natural Rubber Compounds. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24032623. [PMID: 36768945 PMCID: PMC9916552 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24032623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Revised: 01/19/2023] [Accepted: 01/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
The vulcanization of rubber compounds is an exothermal process. A carbon black-filled and natural rubber-based (NR) formulation was mixed with different levels of sulfur (0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0 and 6.0 phr) and studied with differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) for the determination of the vulcanization enthalpy. It was found that the vulcanization enthalpy is dependent on the amount of sulfur present in the compound and the vulcanization heat released was -18.4 kJ/mol S if referred to the entire rubber compound formulation or -46.0 kJ/mol S if the heat released is referred only to the NR present in the compound. The activation energy for the vulcanization of the rubber compounds was also determined by a DSC study at 49 kJ/mol and found to be quite independent from the sulfur content of the compounds under study. A simplified thermochemical model is proposed to explain the main reactions occurring during the vulcanization. The model correctly predicts that the vulcanization is an exothermal process although it gives an overestimation of the vulcanization enthalpy (which is larger for the EV vulcanization package and smaller for the conventional vulcanization system). If the devulcanization is conducted mechanochemically in order to break selectively the sulfur-based crosslinks, then the natural rubber compounds recovered from used tires can be re-vulcanized again and the exothermicity of such process can be measured satisfactorily with DSC analysis. This paper not only proposes a simplified mechanism of vulcanization and devulcanization but also proposes an analytical method to check the devulcanization status of the recycled rubber compound in order to distinguish truly devulcanized rubber from reclaimed rubber.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franco Cataldo
- Actinium Chemical Research, Via Casilina 1626A, 00133 Rome, Italy
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13
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Stelescu MD, Sonmez M, Alexandrescu L, Nituica M, Gurau DF, Georgescu M. Structure and properties of blends based on vulcanized rubber waste and styrene–butadiene–styrene thermoplastic elastomer. J RUBBER RES 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s42464-022-00187-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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14
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Burelo M, Gutiérrez S, Treviño-Quintanilla CD, Cruz-Morales JA, Martínez A, López-Morales S. Synthesis of Biobased Hydroxyl-Terminated Oligomers by Metathesis Degradation of Industrial Rubbers SBS and PB: Tailor-Made Unsaturated Diols and Polyols. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14224973. [PMID: 36433100 PMCID: PMC9692933 DOI: 10.3390/polym14224973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Biobased hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) was successfully synthesized in a one-pot reaction via metathesis degradation of industrial rubbers. Thus, polybutadiene (PB) and poly(styrene-butadiene-styrene) (SBS) were degraded via metathesis with high yields (>94%), using the fatty alcohol 10-undecen-1-ol as a chain transfer agent (CTA) and the second-generation Grubbs−Hoveyda catalyst. The identification of the hydroxyl groups (-OH) and the formation of biobased HTPB were verified by FT-IR and NMR. Likewise, the molecular weight and properties of the HTPB were controlled by changing the molar ratio of rubber to CTA ([C=C]/CTA) from 1:1 to 100:1, considering a constant molar ratio of the catalyst ([C=C]/Ru = 500:1). The number average molecular weight (Mn) ranged between 583 and 6580 g/mol and the decomposition temperatures between 134 and 220 °C. Moreover, the catalyst optimization study showed that at catalyst loadings as low as [C=C]/Ru = 5000:1, the theoretical molecular weight is in good agreement with the experimental molecular weight and the expected diols and polyols are formed. At higher ratios than those, the difference between theoretical and experimental molecular weight is wide, and there is no control over HTPB. Therefore, the rubber/CTA molar ratio and the amount of catalyst play an important role in PB degradation and HTPB synthesis. Biobased HTPB can be used to synthesize engineering design polymers, intermediates, fine chemicals, and in the polyurethane industry, and contribute to the development of environmentally friendly raw materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Burelo
- Institute of Advanced Materials for Sustainable Manufacturing, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Queretaro 76146, Mexico
- Correspondence: (M.B.); (S.G.); (C.D.T.-Q.)
| | - Selena Gutiérrez
- Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacán, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico
- Correspondence: (M.B.); (S.G.); (C.D.T.-Q.)
| | - Cecilia D. Treviño-Quintanilla
- Institute of Advanced Materials for Sustainable Manufacturing, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Queretaro 76146, Mexico
- Correspondence: (M.B.); (S.G.); (C.D.T.-Q.)
| | - Jorge A. Cruz-Morales
- Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacán, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico
| | - Araceli Martínez
- Escuela Nacional de Estudios Superiores, Unidad Morelia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Antigua Carretera a Pátzcuaro No. 8701, Col. Ex. Hacienda de San José de la Huerta, Morelia 58190, Michoacán, Mexico
| | - Salvador López-Morales
- Instituto de Investigaciones en Materiales, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacán, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico
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15
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Thermal and photo oxidative degradation of natural rubber film in the presence of iron (III) stearate. JOURNAL OF POLYMER RESEARCH 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10965-022-03316-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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16
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Tire Ground Rubber Biodegradation by a Consortium Isolated from an Aged Tire. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10071414. [PMID: 35889133 PMCID: PMC9319769 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10071414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Revised: 07/10/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Rubber is a natural product, the main car tire component. Due to the characteristics acquired by this material after its vulcanization process, its degradation under natural conditions requires very long times, causing several environmental problems. In the present work, the existence of a bacterial consortium isolated from a discarded tire found within the Socabaya River with the ability to degrade shredded tire rubber without any chemical pretreatment is explored. Taking into consideration the complex chemical composition of a rubber tire and the described benefits of the use of pretreatments, the study is developed as a preliminary analysis. The augmentative growth technique was used, and the level of degradation was quantified as a percentage through the analysis of microbial respiration. Schiff’s test and the use of comparative photographs of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were also used. The consortium using next generation genetic sequencing was analyzed. A 4.94% degradation point was obtained after 20 days of experimentation, and it was found that the consortium was mostly made up with Delftia tsuruhatensis with 69.12% of the total genetic readings of the consortium and the existence of 15% of unidentified microbial strains at the genre level. The role played by the organisms in the degradation process is unknown. However, the positive results in the tests carried out show that the consortium had action on the shredded tire, showing a mineralization process.
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17
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Schirmeister CG, Mülhaupt R. Closing the Carbon Loop in the Circular Plastics Economy. Macromol Rapid Commun 2022; 43:e2200247. [PMID: 35635841 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202200247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Revised: 05/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Today, plastics are ubiquitous in everyday life, problem solvers of modern technologies, and crucial for sustainable development. Yet the surge in global demand for plastics of the growing world population has triggered a tidal wave of plastic debris in the environment. Moving from a linear to a zero-waste and carbon-neutral circular plastic economy is vital for the future of the planet. Taming the plastic waste flood requires closing the carbon loop through plastic reuse, mechanical and molecular recycling, carbon capture, and use of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. In the quest for eco-friendly products, plastics do not need to be reinvented but tuned for reuse and recycling. Their full potential must be exploited regarding energy, resource, and eco efficiency, waste prevention, circular economy, climate change mitigation, and lowering environmental pollution. Biodegradation holds promise for composting and bio-feedstock recovery, but it is neither the Holy Grail of circular plastics economy nor a panacea for plastic littering. As an alternative to mechanical downcycling, molecular recycling enables both closed-loop recovery of virgin plastics and open-loop valorization, producing hydrogen, fuels, refinery feeds, lubricants, chemicals, and carbonaceous materials. Closing the carbon loop does not create a Perpetuum Mobile and requires renewable energy to achieve sustainability. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl G Schirmeister
- Freiburg Materials Research Center and Institute for Macromolecular Chemistry, University of Freiburg, Stefan-Meier-Str. 31, D-79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Rolf Mülhaupt
- Sustainability Center, University of Freiburg, Ecker-Str. 4, D-79104, Freiburg, Germany
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18
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Boucherit Z, Flahaut S, Djoudi B, Mouas TN, Mechakra A, Ameddah S. Potential of Halophilic Penicillium chrysogenum Isolated from Algerian Saline Soil to Produce Laccase on Olive Oil Wastes. Curr Microbiol 2022; 79:178. [PMID: 35488945 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-022-02868-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Enzymes from halophilic fungi offer interesting biotechnological applications, which lead us to explore novel producing strains. 23 fungi were isolated from Algerian saline soil. Among the three strains presenting laccase activities, one exhibited the high decolourising capacity of olive mill wastewaters. Identification showed that the efficient isolate GS15 belongs to Penicillium chrysogenum. This strain achieves optimal growth at 15% NaCl, 25 °C, pH 5, dark, aerobic and static conditions. The selected fungus is capable of producing extracellular enzymes as follows: caseinase, tannase, esterase and lipase. The laccase activities produced by P. chrysogenum on raw olive wastes are being reported here for the first time. GS15 produced 183.0 and 203.0 U/L of laccase activities in 10% and 20% unsupplemented olive mill wastewaters, respectively. The significant enzymatic activities can be correlated to the high ability of GS15 to decolourise industrial wastewater from the olive oil extraction. In these conditions no pre-treatment of olive wastewaters was needed. On the untreated grinded and non-grinded olive pomace, the laccase activity was 5.78 U/g and 5.36 U/g, respectively. Because the halophilic fungus has basic requirement for growth, this fungal strain is promising for saline biotechnological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeyneb Boucherit
- Laboratoire d'Obtention des Substances Thérapeutiques, Université des Frères Mentouri Constantine 1 (UFMC1), Campus Chaabet Ersas, 25000, Constantine, Algeria.
| | - Sigrid Flahaut
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie Appliquée, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Campus du CERIA, 1070, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Brahim Djoudi
- Laboratoire d'Informatique Repartie, Université Abdelhamid Mehri Constantine 2 (UC2AM), 25000, Constantine, Algeria
| | - Toma-Nardjes Mouas
- Laboratoire d'Obtention des Substances Thérapeutiques, Université des Frères Mentouri Constantine 1 (UFMC1), Campus Chaabet Ersas, 25000, Constantine, Algeria
| | - Aicha Mechakra
- Laboratoire de Biologie et Environnement, Université des Frères Mentouri Constantine 1 (UFMC1), 25000, Constantine, Algeria
| | - Souad Ameddah
- Laboratoire de Biologie et Environnement, Université des Frères Mentouri Constantine 1 (UFMC1), 25000, Constantine, Algeria
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19
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Selective Decomposition of Waste Rubber from the Shoe Industry by the Combination of Thermal Process and Mechanical Grinding. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14051057. [PMID: 35267880 PMCID: PMC8914881 DOI: 10.3390/polym14051057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2021] [Revised: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
A major challenge in waste rubber (WR) industry is achieving a high sol fraction and high molecular weight of recycled rubber at the same time. Herein, the WR from the shoe industry was thermo-mechanically ground via the torque rheometer. The effect of grinding temperature and filling rate were systematically investigated. The particle size distribution, structure evolution, and morphology of the recycled rubber were explored by laser particle size analyzer, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), sol fraction analysis, gel permeation chromatography (GPC), differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), and scanning electron microscope (SEM). The results indicate that the thermo-mechanical method could reduce the particle size of WR. Moreover, the particle size distribution of WR after being ground can be described by Rosin’s equation. The oxidation reaction occurs during thermal-mechanical grinding. With the increase of the grinding temperature and filling rate, the sol fraction of the recycled WR increases. It is also found that a high sol fraction (43.7%) and high molecular weight (35,284 g/mol) of reclaimed rubber could be achieved at 80 °C with a filling rate of 85%. Moreover, the obtained recycled rubber compound with SBR show a similar vulcanization characteristics to pure SBR. Our selective decomposition of waste rubber strategy opens up a new way for upgrading WR in shoe industry.
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20
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Recent Advances in Development of Waste-Based Polymer Materials: A Review. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14051050. [PMID: 35267873 PMCID: PMC8914771 DOI: 10.3390/polym14051050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2021] [Revised: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Limited petroleum sources, suitable law regulations, and higher awareness within society has caused sustainable development of manufacturing and recycling of polymer blends and composites to be gaining increasing attention. This work aims to report recent advances in the manufacturing of environmentally friendly and low-cost polymer materials based on post-production and post-consumer wastes. Sustainable development of three groups of materials: wood polymer composites, polyurethane foams, and rubber recycling products were comprehensively described. Special attention was focused on examples of industrially applicable technologies developed in Poland over the last five years. Moreover, current trends and limitations in the future “green” development of waste-based polymer materials were also discussed.
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