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Ahmad MH, Rizvi MA, Ali M, Mondal AC. Neurobiology of depression in Parkinson's disease: Insights into epidemiology, molecular mechanisms and treatment strategies. Ageing Res Rev 2023; 85:101840. [PMID: 36603690 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2022.101840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Revised: 12/25/2022] [Accepted: 12/31/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized mainly by motor dysfunctions due to the progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons. However, PD patients experience a multitude of debilitating non-motor symptoms, including depression, which may have deleteriously detrimental effects on life. Depression is multifactorial and exhibits a bimodal progression in PD, but its underlying molecular mechanisms are poorly understood. Studies demonstrating the pathophysiology of depression in PD and the specific treatment strategies for depression-like symptoms in PD patients are largely lacking, often underrated, under-recognized and, consequently, inadequately/under-treated. Nevertheless, reports suggest that the incidence of depression is approximately 20-30% of PD patients and may precede the onset of motor symptoms. Diagnosing depression in PD becomes difficult due to the clinical overlap in symptomatology between the two diseases, and the nigrostriatal dysfunction alone is insufficient to explain depressive symptoms in PD. Therefore, the current study provides an overview of the molecular mechanisms underlying the development of depression in PD and new insights into developing current antidepressant strategies to treat depression in PD. This review will identify and understand the molecular pathological mechanisms of depression in PD that will fundamentally help tailoring therapeutic interventions for depressive symptoms in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mir Hilal Ahmad
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology, School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India; Genome Biology Lab, Department of Biosciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi 110025, India
| | - Moshahid Alam Rizvi
- Genome Biology Lab, Department of Biosciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi 110025, India
| | - Mansoor Ali
- Cancer Biology Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Amal Chandra Mondal
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology, School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India.
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Antidepressant-Like Properties of Intrastriatal Botulinum Neurotoxin-A Injection in a Unilateral 6-OHDA Rat Model of Parkinson's Disease. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13070505. [PMID: 34357977 PMCID: PMC8310221 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13070505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s patients often suffer from depression and anxiety, for which there are no optimal treatments. Hemiparkinsonian (hemi-PD) rats were used to test whether intrastriatal Botulinum neurotoxin-A (BoNT-A) application could also have antidepressant-like properties in addition to the known improvement of motor performance. To quantify depression- and anxiety-like behavior, the forced swim test, tail suspension test, open field test, and elevated plus maze test were applied to hemi-PD rats injected with BoNT-A or vehicle. Furthermore, we correlated the results in the forced swim test, open field test, and elevated plus maze test with the rotational behavior induced by apomorphine and amphetamine. Hemi-PD rats did not show significant anxiety-like behavior as compared with Sham 6-OHDA- + Sham BoNT-A-injected as well as with non-injected rats. However, hemi-PD rats demonstrated increased depression-like behaviors compared with Sham- or non-injected rats; this was seen by increased struggling frequency and increased immobility frequency. Hemi-PD rats intrastriatally injected with BoNT-A exhibited reduced depression-like behavior compared with the respective vehicle-receiving hemi-PD animals. The significant effects of intrastriatally applied BoNT-A seen in the forced swim test are reminiscent of those found after various antidepressant drug therapies. Our data correspond with the efficacy of BoNT-A treatment of glabellar frown lines in treating patients with major depression and suggest that also intrastriatal injected BoNT-A may have some antidepressant-like effect on hemi-PD.
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Palmeri R, Lo Buono V, Bonanno L, Allone C, Drago N, Sorbera C, Cimino V, di Lorenzo G, Bramanti A, Marino S. Impaired Recognition of Facial Emotion in Patients With Parkinson Disease Under Dopamine Therapy. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 2020; 33:265-271. [PMID: 31635513 DOI: 10.1177/0891988719882094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Parkinson disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor and nonmotor symptoms. The impaired ability to recognize facial emotion expressions represents an important nonmotor symptom. The aim of this study is to investigate the ability in recognizing facial emotion expressions in patients with PD under dopamine replacement therapy. METHODS Thirty medicated patients with PD and 15 healthy controls (HC) were enrolled. All participants performed the Ekman 60-Faces test for emotional recognition. All patients underwent a neuropsychological evaluation for global cognitive functioning, depression, and anxiety. RESULTS Patients with PD were impaired in recognizing emotions. Significant differences between PD and HC were found in Ekman 60-Faces test scores (P < .001), and in Ekman 60-Faces test subscales, in particular, sadness, fear, disgust, anger, and surprise (P < .001). CONCLUSIONS The nigrostriatal dopaminergic depletion seems to determine emotional information processing dysfunction. This relevant nonmotor symptom could have consequences in daily living reducing interactions and social behavioral competence.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Lilla Bonanno
- IRCCS Centro Neurolesi "Bonino-Pulejo", Messina, Italy
| | | | - Nancy Drago
- IRCCS Centro Neurolesi "Bonino-Pulejo", Messina, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | - Silvia Marino
- IRCCS Centro Neurolesi "Bonino-Pulejo", Messina, Italy
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Ilkiw JL, Kmita LC, Targa ADS, Noseda ACD, Rodrigues LS, Dorieux FWC, Fagotti J, Dos Santos P, Lima MMS. Dopaminergic Lesion in the Olfactory Bulb Restores Olfaction and Induces Depressive-Like Behaviors in a 6-OHDA Model of Parkinson's Disease. Mol Neurobiol 2018; 56:1082-1095. [PMID: 29869198 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-018-1134-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Olfactory impairments and depressive behavior are commonly reported by individuals with Parkinson's disease (PD) being observed before motor symptoms. The mechanisms underlying these clinical manifestations are not fully elucidated. However, the imbalance in dopaminergic neurotransmission seems to play an important role in this context. In patients and animal models of PD, an increase in the dopaminergic interneurons of the glomerular layer in olfactory bulb (OB-gl) is observed, which may contribute to the olfactory impairment. In addition, neuronal imbalance in OB is related to depressive symptoms, as demonstrated by chemical olfactory bulbectomy. In view of that, we hypothesized that a reduction in the number or density of dopaminergic neurons present in OB could promote an olfactory improvement and, in contrast, would accentuate the depressive-like behaviors in the 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) model of PD. Therefore, we performed single or double injections of 6-OHDA within the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) and/or in the OB-gl. We observed that, after 7 days, the group with nigral lesion exhibited olfactory impairment, as well as the group with the lesion in the OB-gl. However, the combination of the lesions prevented the occurrence of hyposmia. In relation to depressive-like behaviors, we observed that the SNpc injury promoted depressive-like behavior, being accentuated after a double injury. Our results demonstrated the importance of the dopaminergic neurons of the OB-gl in different non-motor features of PD, since the selective reduction of these periglomerular neurons was able to induce olfactory impairment and depressive-like behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L Ilkiw
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia. Departamento de Fisiologia, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Av. Francisco H. dos Santos s/n,, Curitiba, PR, 81531-990, Brazil
| | - Luana C Kmita
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia. Departamento de Fisiologia, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Av. Francisco H. dos Santos s/n,, Curitiba, PR, 81531-990, Brazil
| | - Adriano D S Targa
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia. Departamento de Fisiologia, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Av. Francisco H. dos Santos s/n,, Curitiba, PR, 81531-990, Brazil
| | - Ana Carolina D Noseda
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia. Departamento de Fisiologia, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Av. Francisco H. dos Santos s/n,, Curitiba, PR, 81531-990, Brazil
| | - Lais S Rodrigues
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia. Departamento de Fisiologia, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Av. Francisco H. dos Santos s/n,, Curitiba, PR, 81531-990, Brazil
| | - Flávia W C Dorieux
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia. Departamento de Fisiologia, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Av. Francisco H. dos Santos s/n,, Curitiba, PR, 81531-990, Brazil
| | - Juliane Fagotti
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia. Departamento de Fisiologia, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Av. Francisco H. dos Santos s/n,, Curitiba, PR, 81531-990, Brazil
| | - Patrícia Dos Santos
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia. Departamento de Fisiologia, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Av. Francisco H. dos Santos s/n,, Curitiba, PR, 81531-990, Brazil
| | - Marcelo M S Lima
- Laboratório de Neurofisiologia. Departamento de Fisiologia, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Av. Francisco H. dos Santos s/n,, Curitiba, PR, 81531-990, Brazil.
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Targa AD, Noseda ACD, Rodrigues LS, Aurich MF, Lima MM. REM sleep deprivation and dopaminergic D2 receptors modulation increase recognition memory in an animal model of Parkinson’s disease. Behav Brain Res 2018; 339:239-248. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2017] [Revised: 11/03/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Dopaminergic Modulation of Medial Prefrontal Cortex Deactivation in Parkinson Depression. PARKINSONS DISEASE 2015; 2015:513452. [PMID: 26793404 PMCID: PMC4697088 DOI: 10.1155/2015/513452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2015] [Accepted: 11/25/2015] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is associated with emotional abnormalities. Dopaminergic medications ameliorate Parkinsonian motor symptoms, but less is known regarding the impact of dopaminergic agents on affective processing, particularly in depressed PD (dPD) patients. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of dopaminergic pharmacotherapy on brain activation to emotional stimuli in depressed versus nondepressed Parkinson disease (ndPD) patients. Participants included 18 ndPD patients (11 men, 7 women) and 10 dPD patients (7 men, 3 women). Patients viewed photographs of emotional faces during functional MRI. Scans were performed while the patient was taking anti-Parkinson medication and the day after medication had been temporarily discontinued. Results indicate that dopaminergic medications have opposite effects in the prefrontal cortex depending upon depression status. DPD patients show greater deactivation in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC) on dopaminergic medications than off, while ndPD patients show greater deactivation in this region off drugs. The VMPFC is in the default-mode network (DMN). DMN activity is negatively correlated with activity in brain systems used for external visual attention. Thus dopaminergic medications may promote increased attention to external visual stimuli among dPD patients but impede normal suppression of DMN activity during external stimulation among ndPD patients.
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Paradoxical effect of dopamine medication on cognition in Parkinson's disease: relationship to side of motor onset. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2015; 21:259-70. [PMID: 25923830 PMCID: PMC4493897 DOI: 10.1017/s1355617715000181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by asymmetric motor symptom onset attributed to greater degeneration of dopamine neurons contralateral to the affected side. However, whether motor asymmetries predict cognitive profiles in PD, and to what extent dopamine influences cognition remains controversial. This study evaluated cognitive variability in PD by measuring differential response to dopamine replacement therapy (DRT) based on hemispheric asymmetries. The influence of DRT on cognition was evaluated in mild PD patients (n = 36) with left or right motor onset symptoms. All subjects were evaluated on neuropsychological measures on and off DRT and compared to controls (n = 42). PD patients were impaired in executive, memory and motor domains irrespective of side of motor onset, although patients with left hemisphere deficit displayed greater cognitive impairment. Patients with right hemisphere deficit responded to DRT with significant improvement in sensorimotor deficits, and with corresponding improvement in attention and verbal memory functions. Conversely, patients with greater left hemisphere dopamine deficiency did not improve in attentional functions and declined in verbal memory recall following DRT. These findings support the presence of extensive mild cognitive deficits in early PD not fully explained by dopamine depletion alone. The paradoxical effects of levodopa on verbal memory were predicted by extent of fine motor impairment and sensorimotor response to levodopa, which reflects extent of dopamine depletion. The findings are discussed with respect to factors influencing variable cognitive profiles in early PD, including hemispheric asymmetries and differential response to levodopa based on dopamine levels predicting amelioration or overdosing.
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Abdel-Salam OME. Prevalence, clinical features and treatment of depression in Parkinson’s disease: An update. World J Neurol 2015; 5:17-38. [DOI: 10.5316/wjn.v5.i1.17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2014] [Revised: 01/10/2015] [Accepted: 02/09/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is one of the most prevalent neurodegenerative diseases which typically affects individuals over 65 years. Although the symptomatology is predominantly motor, neuropsychiatric manifestations, e.g., depression, apathy, anxiety, and cognitive impairment occur in the course of the illness and can have a great impact on the quality of life in these patients. Parkinson’s disease is commonly comorbid with depression with prevalence rates of depression, generally higher than those reported in general population. Depression in PD is frequently underestimated and consequently undertreated, which have significant effects on the quality of life in these patients. The neurobiology of depression in PD is complex and involves alterations in dopaminergic, serotonergic, noradrenergic and possibly other neurotransmitter systems which are affected in the course of the disease. The tricyclic antidepressants and the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are the two classes of antidepressant drugs used for depressive symptoms in PD. Several published studies suggested that both classes are of comparable efficacy. Other serotonergic antidepressants, e.g., nefazodone and trazodone have also been of benefit. Meanwhile, there are limited data available on other drugs but these suggest a benefit from the serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors such as mirtazapine, venlafaxine, atomoxetine and duloxetine. Some of the drugs used in symptomatic treatment of PD, e.g., the irreversible selective inhibitors of the enzyme monoamine oxidase-B, rasagiline and selegiline as well as the dopamine receptor agonist pramipexole are likely to have direct antidepressant activity independent of their motor improving action. This would make these drugs an attractive option in depressed subjects with PD. The aim of this review is to provide an updated data on the prevalence, clinical features of depression in subjects with PD. The effects of antiparkinsonian and antidepressant drugs on depressive symptoms in these patients are also discussed.
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Dai D, Wang Y, Zhou X, Tao J, Jiang D, Zhou H, Jiang Y, Pan G, Ru P, Ji H, Li J, Zhang Y, Yin H, Xu M, Duan S. Meta-analyses of seven GIGYF2 polymorphisms with Parkinson's disease. Biomed Rep 2014; 2:886-892. [PMID: 25279164 DOI: 10.3892/br.2014.324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2014] [Accepted: 07/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder that affects ~2% of the global population aged ≥65 years. Grb10-interacting GYF protein-2 (GIGYF2) can influence the development of PD through the regulation of insulin-like growth factor-1. The aim of the present meta-analysis study was to establish the contribution of GIGYF2 polymorphisms to PD. The study was conducted based on nine eligible studies consisting of 7,246 PD patients and 7,544 healthy controls. The results indicated that the GIGYF2 C.3630A>G polymorphism increased the risk of PD by 37% [P=0.008; odds ratio (OR), 1.37; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.08-1.73] and that the GIGYF2 C.167G>A polymorphism was significantly associated with PD (P=0.003; OR, 3.67; 95% CI, 1.56-8.68). The meta-analyses of the other five GIGYF2 polymorphisms (C.1378C>A, C.1554G>A, C.2940A>G, C.1370C>A and C.3651G>A) did not reveal any significant associations. The present meta-analyses of the GIGYF2 genetic polymorphisms may provide a comprehensive overview of this PD candidate gene for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongjun Dai
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315211, P.R. China
| | - Yunliang Wang
- Department of Neurology, The 148 Central Hospital of People's Liberation Army, Zibo, Shandong 255300, P.R. China
| | - Xingyu Zhou
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315211, P.R. China
| | - Jianmin Tao
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315211, P.R. China
| | - Danjie Jiang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315211, P.R. China
| | - Hanlin Zhou
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315211, P.R. China
| | - Yi Jiang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315211, P.R. China
| | - Guanghui Pan
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315211, P.R. China
| | - Ping Ru
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315211, P.R. China
| | - Huihui Ji
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315211, P.R. China
| | - Jinfeng Li
- Department of Neurology, The 148 Central Hospital of People's Liberation Army, Zibo, Shandong 255300, P.R. China
| | - Yuzheng Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The 148 Central Hospital of People's Liberation Army, Zibo, Shandong 255300, P.R. China
| | - Honglei Yin
- Department of Neurology, The 148 Central Hospital of People's Liberation Army, Zibo, Shandong 255300, P.R. China
| | - Mingqing Xu
- Bio-X Institutes, Key Laboratory for the Genetics of Developmental and Neuropsychiatric Disorders (Ministry of Education), Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Xuhui, Shanghai 200240, P.R. China
| | - Shiwei Duan
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315211, P.R. China
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Dai D, Wang Y, Wang L, Li J, Ma Q, Tao J, Zhou X, Zhou H, Jiang Y, Pan G, Xu L, Ru P, Lin D, Pan J, Xu L, Ye M, Duan S. Polymorphisms of DRD2 and DRD3 genes and Parkinson's disease: A meta-analysis. Biomed Rep 2014; 2:275-281. [PMID: 24649110 DOI: 10.3892/br.2014.220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2013] [Accepted: 12/17/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder that affects ~2% of the population aged ≥65 years. The degeneration of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra contributes to the pathogenesis of PD. Dopamine receptor D2 (DRD2) and dopamine receptor D3 (DRD3) are two key subtypes of dopamine receptors. The aim of our study was to evaluate the association between the polymorphisms of DRD2 and DRD3 genes and PD. Meta-analyses were conducted from 16 studies (46 stages) among 4,279 cases and 5,661 controls between PD and 9 polymorphisms (DRD2: rs1800497, rs1079597, rs6278, rs6279, rs273482, rs1799732 and rs1076563; DRD3: rs6280 and rs2134655). A significant association was observed between DRD3 rs2134655 polymorphism and PD [P=0.01, odds ratio (OR)=1.17, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.03-1.32] and a borderline association was observed between DRD2 rs1800497 polymorphism and PD in Europeans (P=0.05, OR=1.13, 95% CI: 1.00-1.27). Findings of the current meta-analysis suggested that DRD3 rs2134655 polymorphism was associated with a 17% increased risk of PD and that DRD2 rs1800497 polymorphism had a potential to increase the risk of PD by 13% in Europeans. Future large-scale studies are required to confirm the ethnic difference of DRD2 rs1800497 polymorphism and to determine whether there were significant associations of PD with other polymorphisms in DRD2 and DRD3 genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongjun Dai
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315211, P.R. China ; Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315000, P.R. China
| | - Yunliang Wang
- Department of Neurology, 148 Central Hospital of PLA, Zibo, Shandong 255300, P.R. China
| | - Lingyan Wang
- Bank of Blood Products, Ningbo No. 2 Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315010, P.R. China
| | - Jinfeng Li
- Department of Neurology, 148 Central Hospital of PLA, Zibo, Shandong 255300, P.R. China
| | - Qingqing Ma
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315211, P.R. China
| | - Jianmin Tao
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315211, P.R. China
| | - Xingyu Zhou
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315211, P.R. China
| | - Hanlin Zhou
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315211, P.R. China
| | - Yi Jiang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315211, P.R. China
| | - Guanghui Pan
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315211, P.R. China
| | - Limin Xu
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315211, P.R. China
| | - Ping Ru
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315211, P.R. China
| | - Danfeng Lin
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315211, P.R. China
| | - Jun Pan
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315211, P.R. China
| | - Leiting Xu
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315211, P.R. China
| | - Meng Ye
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated Hospital, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315000, P.R. China
| | - Shiwei Duan
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315211, P.R. China
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