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Ma L, Eguchi A, Liu G, Qu Y, Wan X, Murayama R, Mori C, Hashimoto K. A role of gut-brain axis on prophylactic actions of arketamine in male mice exposed to chronic restrain stress. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2024; 238:173736. [PMID: 38401573 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2024.173736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2024] [Revised: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/26/2024]
Abstract
The gut-brain axis, which includes gut microbiota and microbiome-derived metabolites, might be implicated in depression. We reported the sustained prophylactic effects of a new antidepressant arketamine in chronic restrain stress (CRS) model of depression. In this study, we investigated the role of gut-brain axis on the prophylactic effects of arketamine in the CRS (7 days) model. Pretreatment with arketamine (10 mg/kg, 1 day prior to the CRS onset) significantly prevented CRS-induced body weight loss, increased immobility time of forced swimming test, decreased sucrose preference of sucrose preference test, and reduced expressions of synaptic proteins (GluA1 and PSD-95) in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) in the male mice. Gut microbiota analysis showed that pretreatment with arketamine might restore altered abundance of gut microbiota in CRS-exposed mice. An untargeted metabolomics analysis revealed four metabolites (e.g., L-leucine, N-acetyl-l-glutamine, 2-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-3-[4-(dimethylamino)phenyl]acrylonitrile, L-threonine amide) that were altered between control and CRS group; however, there were found to be altered between the saline + CRS group and the arketamine + CRS group. Network analysis demonstrated correlations among synaptic proteins in the PFC and certain microbiota, and blood metabolites. These findings suggest that gut-brain axis, including its metabolites, might partially contribute to the persistent prophylactic effects of arketamine in the CRS model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Ma
- Division of Clinical Neuroscience, Chiba University Center for Forensic Mental Health, Chiba 260-8670, Japan
| | - Akifumi Eguchi
- Department of Sustainable Health Science, Chiba University Center for Preventive Medical Sciences, Chiba 263-8522, Japan
| | - Guilin Liu
- Division of Clinical Neuroscience, Chiba University Center for Forensic Mental Health, Chiba 260-8670, Japan; Department of Anesthesiology, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266003, China
| | - Youge Qu
- Division of Clinical Neuroscience, Chiba University Center for Forensic Mental Health, Chiba 260-8670, Japan
| | - Xiayun Wan
- Division of Clinical Neuroscience, Chiba University Center for Forensic Mental Health, Chiba 260-8670, Japan
| | - Rumi Murayama
- Division of Clinical Neuroscience, Chiba University Center for Forensic Mental Health, Chiba 260-8670, Japan; Laboratory of Chemical Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, Chiba 260-8670, Japan
| | - Chisato Mori
- Department of Sustainable Health Science, Chiba University Center for Preventive Medical Sciences, Chiba 263-8522, Japan; Department of Bioenvironmental Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba 260-8670, Japan
| | - Kenji Hashimoto
- Division of Clinical Neuroscience, Chiba University Center for Forensic Mental Health, Chiba 260-8670, Japan.
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Yang Y, Eguchi A, Mori C, Hashimoto K. Depression-like phenotypes in mice following common bile duct ligation: Insights into the gut-liver-brain axis via the vagus nerve. Neurobiol Dis 2024; 192:106433. [PMID: 38331354 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2024.106433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2024] [Revised: 02/06/2024] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Depression frequently occurs in patients with liver cirrhosis, yet the reasons for this correlation are not fully understood. Dysbiosis of gut microbiota has been implicated in depression through the gut-brain axis via the vagus nerve. This study explored the potential role of the gut-liver-brain axis via the vagus nerve in depression-like phenotypes in mice with liver cirrhosis. These mice underwent common bile duct ligation (CBDL), a method used to stimulate liver cirrhosis. To assess depression-like behaviors, behavioral tests were conducted 10 days following either sham or CBDL surgeries. The mice with CBDL displayed symptoms such as splenomegaly, elevated plasma levels of interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α, depression-like behaviors, decreased levels of synaptic proteins in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), disrupted gut microbiota balance, and changes in blood metabolites (or lipids). Additionally, there were positive or negative correlations between the relative abundance of microbiome and behavioral data or blood metabolites (or lipids). Significantly, these changes were reversed in CBDL mice by performing a subdiaphragmatic vagotomy. Intriguingly, depression-like phenotypes in mice with CBDL were improved after a single injection of arketamine, a new antidepressant. These results suggest that CBDL-induced depression-like phenotypes in mice are mediated through the gut-liver-brain axis via the subdiaphragmatic vagus nerve, and that arketamine might offer a new treatment approach for depression in liver cirrhosis patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Yang
- Division of Clinical Neuroscience, Chiba University Center for Forensic Mental Health, Chiba 260-8670, Japan; Department of Neurosurgery, Guizhou Provincial People's Hospital, Guiyang 550002, China
| | - Akifumi Eguchi
- Department of Sustainable Health Science, Chiba University Center for Preventive Medical Sciences, Chiba 263-8522, Japan
| | - Chisato Mori
- Department of Sustainable Health Science, Chiba University Center for Preventive Medical Sciences, Chiba 263-8522, Japan; Department of Bioenvironmental Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba 260-8670, Japan
| | - Kenji Hashimoto
- Division of Clinical Neuroscience, Chiba University Center for Forensic Mental Health, Chiba 260-8670, Japan.
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Hashimoto K. Are "mystical experiences" essential for antidepressant actions of ketamine and the classic psychedelics? Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2024:10.1007/s00406-024-01770-7. [PMID: 38411629 DOI: 10.1007/s00406-024-01770-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/28/2024]
Abstract
The growing interest in the rapid and sustained antidepressant effects of the dissociative anesthetic ketamine and classic psychedelics, such as psilocybin, is remarkable. However, both ketamine and psychedelics are known to induce acute mystical experiences; ketamine can cause dissociative symptoms such as out-of-body experience, while psychedelics typically bring about hallucinogenic experiences, like a profound sense of unity with the universe or nature. The role of these mystical experiences in enhancing the antidepressant outcomes for patients with depression is currently an area of ongoing investigation and debate. Clinical studies have shown that the dissociative symptoms following the administration of ketamine or (S)-ketamine (esketamine) are not directly linked to their antidepressant properties. In contrast, the antidepressant potential of (R)-ketamine (arketamine), thought to lack dissociative side effects, has yet to be conclusively proven in large-scale clinical trials. Moreover, although the activation of the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor is crucial for the hallucinogenic effects of psychedelics in humans, its precise role in their antidepressant action is still under discussion. This article explores the importance of mystical experiences in enhancing the antidepressant efficacy of both ketamine and classic psychedelics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenji Hashimoto
- Division of Clinical Neuroscience, Chiba University Center for Forensic Mental Health, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chiba, 260-8670, Japan.
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Sah RK, Nandan A, Kv A, S P, S S, Jose A, Venkidasamy B, Nile SH. Decoding the role of the gut microbiome in gut-brain axis, stress-resilience, or stress-susceptibility: A review. Asian J Psychiatr 2024; 91:103861. [PMID: 38134565 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajp.2023.103861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Revised: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
Increased exposure to stress is associated with stress-related disorders, including depression, anxiety, and neurodegenerative conditions. However, susceptibility to stress is not seen in every individual exposed to stress, and many of them exhibit resilience. Thus, developing resilience to stress could be a big breakthrough in stress-related disorders, with the potential to replace or act as an alternative to the available therapies. In this article, we have focused on the recent advancements in gut microbiome research and the potential role of the gut-brain axis (GBA) in developing resilience or susceptibility to stress. There might be a complex interaction between the autonomic nervous system (ANS), immune system, endocrine system, microbial metabolites, and bioactive lipids like short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), neurotransmitters, and their metabolites that regulates the communication between the gut microbiota and the brain. High fiber intake, prebiotics, probiotics, plant supplements, and fecal microbiome transplant (FMT) could be beneficial against gut dysbiosis-associated brain disorders. These could promote the growth of SCFA-producing bacteria, thereby enhancing the gut barrier and reducing the gut inflammatory response, increase the expression of the claudin-2 protein associated with the gut barrier, and maintain the blood-brain barrier integrity by promoting the expression of tight junction proteins such as claudin-5. Their neuroprotective effects might also be related to enhancing the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and glucagon-like peptide (GLP-1). Further investigations are needed in the field of the gut microbiome for the elucidation of the mechanisms by which gut dysbiosis contributes to the pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ranjay Kumar Sah
- Department of Pharmacology, Amrita School of Pharmacy, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, AIMS Health Sciences Campus, Kochi 682 041, Kerala, India
| | - Amritasree Nandan
- Department of Pharmacology, Amrita School of Pharmacy, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, AIMS Health Sciences Campus, Kochi 682 041, Kerala, India
| | - Athira Kv
- Department of Pharmacology, Amrita School of Pharmacy, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, AIMS Health Sciences Campus, Kochi 682 041, Kerala, India.
| | - Prashant S
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Amrita School of Pharmacy, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, AIMS Health Sciences Campus, Kochi 682 041, Kerala, India
| | - Sathianarayanan S
- NITTE (Deemed to be University), NGSM Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Mangalore, India
| | - Asha Jose
- JSS College of Pharmacy, JSS Academy of Higher Education and research, Ooty 643001, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Baskar Venkidasamy
- Department of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, Saveetha Dental College and Hospitals, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences (SIMATS), Saveetha University, Chennai 600 077, Tamil Nadu, India.
| | - Shivraj Hariram Nile
- Division of Food and Nutritional Biotechnology, National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute (NABI), Sector-81, Mohali 140306, Punjab, India.
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Qu Y, Eguchi A, Ma L, Wan X, Mori C, Hashimoto K. Role of the gut-brain axis via the subdiaphragmatic vagus nerve in stress resilience of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in mice exposed to chronic restrain stress. Neurobiol Dis 2023; 189:106348. [PMID: 37956855 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2023.106348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2023] [Revised: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is the most widely used illicit substance worldwide. Nevertheless, recent observational studies demonstrated that lifetime MDMA use among U.S. adults was associated with a lower risk of depression and suicide thoughts. We recently reported that the gut-brain axis may contribute to MDMA-induced stress resilience in mice. To further explore this, we investigated the effects of subdiaphragmatic vagotomy (SDV) in modulating the stress resilience effects of MDMA in mice subjected to chronic restrain stress (CRS). Pretreatment with MDMA (10 mg/kg/day for 14 days) blocked anhedonia-like behavior and reduced expression of synaptic proteins and brain-derived neurotrophic factor in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) of CRS-exposed mice. Interestingly, SDV blocked the beneficial effects of MDMA on these alterations in CRS-exposed mice. Analysis of gut microbiome revealed alterations in four measures of α-diversity between the sham + MDMA + CRS group and the SDV + MDMA + CRS group. Moreover, specific microbes differed between the vehicle + CRS group and the MDMA + CRS group, and further differences in microbial composition were observed among all four groups. Untargeted metabolomics analysis showed that SDV prevented the increase in plasma levels of three compounds [lactic acid, 1-(2-hydroxyethyl)-2,2,6-tetramethyl-4-piperidinol, 8-acetyl-7-hydroxyvumaline] observed in the sham + MDMA + CRS group. Interestingly, positive correlations were found between the plasma levels of two of these compounds and the abundance of several microbes across all groups. In conclusion, our data suggest that the gut-brain axis via the subdiaphragmatic vagus nerve might contribute to the stress resilience of MDMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youge Qu
- Division of Clinical Neuroscience, Chiba University Center for Forensic Mental Health, Chiba 260-8670, Japan
| | - Akifumi Eguchi
- Department of Sustainable Health Science, Chiba University Center for Preventive Medical Sciences, Chiba 263-8522, Japan
| | - Li Ma
- Division of Clinical Neuroscience, Chiba University Center for Forensic Mental Health, Chiba 260-8670, Japan
| | - Xiayun Wan
- Division of Clinical Neuroscience, Chiba University Center for Forensic Mental Health, Chiba 260-8670, Japan
| | - Chisato Mori
- Department of Sustainable Health Science, Chiba University Center for Preventive Medical Sciences, Chiba 263-8522, Japan; Department of Bioenvironmental Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba 260-8670, Japan
| | - Kenji Hashimoto
- Division of Clinical Neuroscience, Chiba University Center for Forensic Mental Health, Chiba 260-8670, Japan.
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Wang P, Wu PF, Wang HJ, Liao F, Wang F, Chen JG. Gut microbiome-derived ammonia modulates stress vulnerability in the host. Nat Metab 2023; 5:1986-2001. [PMID: 37872351 DOI: 10.1038/s42255-023-00909-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
Ammonia has been long recognized as a metabolic waste product with well-known neurotoxic effects. However, little is known about the beneficial function of endogenous ammonia. Here, we show that gut ammonia links microbe nitrogen metabolism to host stress vulnerability by maintaining brain glutamine availability in male mice. Chronic stress decreases blood ammonia levels by altering gut urease-positive microbiota. A representative urease-producing strain, Streptococcus thermophilus, can reverse depression-like behaviours induced by gut microbiota that was altered by stress, whereas pharmacological inhibition of gut ammonia production increases stress vulnerability. Notably, abnormally low blood ammonia levels limit the brain's availability of glutamine, a key metabolite produced by astrocytes that is required for presynaptic γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) replenishment and confers stress vulnerability through cortical GABAergic dysfunction. Of therapeutic interest, ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), a commonly used expectorant in the clinic, can rescue behavioural abnormalities and GABAergic deficits in mouse models of depression. In sum, ammonia produced by the gut microbiome can help buffer stress in the host, providing a gut-brain signalling basis for emotional behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Peng-Fei Wu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- The Key Laboratory for Drug Target Researches and Pharmacodynamic Evaluation of Hubei Province, Wuhan, China
- The Research Center for Depression, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science, Wuhan, China
- The Key Laboratory of Neurological Diseases (HUST), Ministry of Education of China, Wuhan, China
| | - Hua-Jie Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Fang Liao
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Fang Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.
- The Key Laboratory for Drug Target Researches and Pharmacodynamic Evaluation of Hubei Province, Wuhan, China.
- The Research Center for Depression, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science, Wuhan, China.
- The Key Laboratory of Neurological Diseases (HUST), Ministry of Education of China, Wuhan, China.
| | - Jian-Guo Chen
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.
- The Key Laboratory for Drug Target Researches and Pharmacodynamic Evaluation of Hubei Province, Wuhan, China.
- The Research Center for Depression, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science, Wuhan, China.
- The Key Laboratory of Neurological Diseases (HUST), Ministry of Education of China, Wuhan, China.
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Li Q, Sun H, Guo J, Zhao X, Bai R, Zhang M, Liu M. The effect of prenatal stress on offspring depression susceptibility in relation to the gut microbiome and metabolome. J Affect Disord 2023; 339:531-537. [PMID: 37463643 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2023.07.089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Revised: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/20/2023]
Abstract
Prenatal stress (PS) increases offspring susceptibility to depression, but the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Our previous results showed that PS can affect depression-like behavior in offspring through neurotransmitters and neuroinflammatory substances in the hippocampus and frontal cortex. In recent years there has been increasing evidence for a role of the gut microbiome in depression. The brain-gut axis theory suggests there is a need to further explore the mechanism involving the gut microbiome in the susceptibility of offspring to depression caused by PS. In the present study we used a stress model relevant to depression in which pregnant female rats undergo prenatal restraint stress and the offspring show susceptibility to depression. High-resolution gene sequencing for 16S ribosomal RNA markers and non-targeted metabolomic analysis were used to evaluate the fecal microbiome and the availability of metabolites, respectively. PS was found to induce depressive-like behavior in susceptible offspring (PS-S), as detected by the sucrose preference and forced swimming tests, as well as altering Alpha and Beta diversity. The different microbiota between the PS-S and control groups were mainly involved in membrane transport, carbohydrate metabolism, amino acid metabolism, and replication and repair pathways. In total, 237 and 136 important differential metabolites with significant influence on modeling analysis were obtained under positive and negative modes, respectively. The main canonical pathways found to be altered were glycerophospholipid metabolism and glycerolipid metabolism. These results suggest that gut microbiota might contribute to the onset of PS-induced depression-like behavior by affecting the glycerophospholipid and glycerolipid metabolic pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinghong Li
- Department of Neonatology, Northwest Women's and Children's Hospital, Xi'an, Shaanxi 86-710061, PR China
| | - Hongli Sun
- Shaanxi Institute for Pediatric Diseases, Xi'an Key Laboratory of Children's Health and Diseases, Xi'an Children's Hospital (The Affiliated Children's Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University), Xi'an, Shaanxi 86-710003, PR China
| | - Jinzhen Guo
- Department of Neonatology, Northwest Women's and Children's Hospital, Xi'an, Shaanxi 86-710061, PR China
| | - Xiaolin Zhao
- Department of Neonatology, Northwest Women's and Children's Hospital, Xi'an, Shaanxi 86-710061, PR China
| | - Ruimiao Bai
- Department of Neonatology, Northwest Women's and Children's Hospital, Xi'an, Shaanxi 86-710061, PR China
| | - Min Zhang
- Department of Neonatology, Northwest Women's and Children's Hospital, Xi'an, Shaanxi 86-710061, PR China
| | - Minna Liu
- Child Healthcare Department, Northwest Women's and Children's Hospital, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 86-710061, PR China.
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Wan X, Eguchi A, Chang L, Mori C, Hashimoto K. Beneficial effects of arketamine on the reduced bone mineral density in susceptible mice after chronic social defeat stress: Role of the gut-microbiota-bone-brain axis. Neuropharmacology 2023; 228:109466. [PMID: 36804535 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2023.109466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Abstract
Patients with depression exhibit reduced bone mineral density (BMD). We previously reported that the new antidepressant arketamine improved the reduced BMD seen in chronic social defeat stress (CSDS) susceptible mice and ovariectomized mice. Considering the role of the gut microbiota in maintaining bone health, the current study investigated whether the gut microbiota, along with metabolites derived from the microbiome, play a role in the beneficial actions of arketamine with respect to the anhedonia-like behavior and reduced BMD seen in CSDS susceptible mice. A single administration of arketamine (10 mg/kg) ameliorated anhedonia-like behavior and decreased femoral neck cortical (and total) BMD in CSDS susceptible mice. There was a negative correlation between anhedonia-like behavior and BMD. Furthermore, significant differences in the abundance of microbiota (and plasma metabolites) were found between the CSDS + saline and CSDS + arketamine groups. Correlations were observed between the abundance of certain microbiota (and plasma metabolites) and cortical (and total) BMD. These data suggest that, in addition to its anti-anhedonia effect, arketamine might ameliorate the reduced cortical (and total) BMD seen in CSDS susceptible mice through the gut-microbiota-bone-brain axis. Therefore, arketamine could serve as a drug therapy for depressed patients with low BMD. This article is part of the Special Issue on "Ketamine and its Metabolites".
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiayun Wan
- Division of Clinical Neuroscience, Chiba University Center for Forensic Mental Health, Chiba, 260-8670, Japan
| | - Akifumi Eguchi
- Department of Sustainable Health Science, Chiba University Center for Preventive Medical Sciences, Chiba, 263-8522, Japan
| | - Lijia Chang
- Division of Clinical Neuroscience, Chiba University Center for Forensic Mental Health, Chiba, 260-8670, Japan
| | - Chisato Mori
- Department of Sustainable Health Science, Chiba University Center for Preventive Medical Sciences, Chiba, 263-8522, Japan; Department of Bioenvironmental Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba, 260-8670, Japan
| | - Kenji Hashimoto
- Division of Clinical Neuroscience, Chiba University Center for Forensic Mental Health, Chiba, 260-8670, Japan.
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9
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Hashimoto K. Neuroinflammation through the vagus nerve-dependent gut–microbiota–brain axis in treatment-resistant depression. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2023.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
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