Mathematical estimation and in vivo dose measurement for cone-beam computed tomography on prostate cancer patients

Setup errors and effectiveness of Optical Laser 3D Surface imaging system (Sentinel) in postoperative radiotherapy of breast cancer

Breast-conserving surgery (BCS) plus postoperative radiotherapy has become the standard treatment for early-stage breast cancer. The aim of this study was to compare the setup accuracy of optical surface imaging by the Sentinel system with cone-beam computerized tomography (CBCT) imaging currently used in our clinic for patients received BCS. Two optical surface scans were acquired before and immediately after couch movement correction. The correlation between the setup errors as determined by the initial optical surface scan and CBCT was analyzed. The deviation of the second optical surface scan from the reference planning CT was considered an estimate for the residual errors for the new method for patient setup correction. The consequences in terms for necessary planning target volume (PTV) margins for treatment sessions without setup correction applied. We analyzed 145 scans in 27 patients treated for early stage breast cancer. The setup errors of skin marker based patient alignment by optical surface scan and CBCT were correlated, and the residual setup errors as determined by the optical surface scan after couch movement correction were reduced. Optical surface imaging provides a convenient method for improving the setup accuracy for breast cancer patient without unnecessary imaging dose.

Image guidance doses delivered during radiotherapy: Quantification, management, and reduction: Report of the AAPM Therapy Physics Committee Task Group 180

BACKGROUND

With radiotherapy having entered the era of image guidance, or image-guided radiation therapy (IGRT), imaging procedures are routinely performed for patient positioning and target localization. The imaging dose delivered may result in excessive dose to sensitive organs and potentially increase the chance of secondary cancers and, therefore, needs to be managed.

AIMS

This task group was charged with: a) providing an overview on imaging dose, including megavoltage electronic portal imaging (MV EPI), kilovoltage digital radiography (kV DR), Tomotherapy MV-CT, megavoltage cone-beam CT (MV-CBCT) and kilovoltage cone-beam CT (kV-CBCT), and b) providing general guidelines for commissioning dose calculation methods and managing imaging dose to patients.

MATERIALS & METHODS

We briefly review the dose to radiotherapy (RT) patients resulting from different image guidance procedures and list typical organ doses resulting from MV and kV image acquisition procedures.

RESULTS

We provide recommendations for managing the imaging dose, including different methods for its calculation, and techniques for reducing it. The recommended threshold beyond which imaging dose should be considered in the treatment planning process is 5% of the therapeutic target dose.

DISCUSSION

Although the imaging dose resulting from current kV acquisition procedures is generally below this threshold, the ALARA principle should always be applied in practice. Medical physicists should make radiation oncologists aware of the imaging doses delivered to patients under their care.

CONCLUSION

Balancing ALARA with the requirement for effective target localization requires that imaging dose be managed based on the consideration of weighing risks and benefits to the patient.

Imaging dose from cone beam computed tomography in radiation therapy

Imaging dose in radiation therapy has traditionally been ignored due to its low magnitude and frequency in comparison to therapeutic dose used to treat patients. The advent of modern, volumetric, imaging modalities, often as an integral part of linear accelerators, has facilitated the implementation of image-guided radiation therapy (IGRT), which is often accomplished by daily imaging of patients. Daily imaging results in additional dose delivered to patient that warrants new attention be given to imaging dose. This review summarizes the imaging dose delivered to patients as the result of cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) imaging performed in radiation therapy using current methods and equipment. This review also summarizes methods to calculate the imaging dose, including the use of Monte Carlo (MC) and treatment planning systems (TPS). Peripheral dose from CBCT imaging, dose reduction methods, the use of effective dose in describing imaging dose, and the measurement of CT dose index (CTDI) in CBCT systems are also reviewed.

Validation of a technique for estimating organ doses for kilovoltage cone-beam CT of the prostate using the PCXMC 2.0 patient dose calculator

The use of cone beam CT in common radiotherapy treatments is increasing with the growth of image guided radiotherapy. Whilst the benefits that this technology offers are clear, such as improved patient positioning prior to treatment, it is always important to consider the implications of such intensive imaging regimes on the patient, especially when considering the fundamental radiation protection requirements for justification and optimisation.The purpose of this study was to develop a technique that uses readily available dose calculation software (PCXMC 2.0) to estimate the organ and effective doses that result from these types of examination in prostate treatments on the Varian OBI system. It has been shown that by separating these types of examinations into 28 different projections, with a range of x-ray beam qualities, it is possible to reproduce the complex geometry that is used on these imaging systems in PCXMC i.e. asymmetric radiation field with a half bowtie filter rotating 360° around the patient.This new technique has been validated with thermo-luminescent dosimeter measurements in the Rando anthropomorphic phantom, and has been shown to give excellent agreement with this established method (R(2) = 0.995). This technique will prove to be valuable to radiotherapy departments that are looking to optimise their CBCT imaging protocols as it allows a rapid evaluation of the impact of any changes on patient dose. It also serves to further highlight the levels of dose that these types of patient are subject to when having daily CBCT scans as part of the treatment, which further reinforces the need for optimisation of both patient dose and image quality on these systems.

A dosimetry technique for measuring kilovoltage cone-beam CT dose on a linear accelerator using radiotherapy equipment

This work develops a technique for kilovoltage cone‐beam CT (CBCT) dosimetry that incorporates both point dose and integral dose in the form of dose length product, and uses readily available radiotherapy equipment. The dose from imaging protocols for a range of imaging parameters and treatment sites was evaluated. Conventional CT dosimetry using 100 mm long pencil chambers has been shown to be inadequate for the large fields in CBCT and has been replaced in this work by a combination of point dose and integral dose. Absolute dose measurements were made with a small volume ion chamber at the central slice of a radiotherapy phantom. Beam profiles were measured using a linear diode array large enough to capture the entire imaging field. These profiles were normalized to absolute dose to form dose line integrals, which were then weighted with radial depth to form the DLP_CBCT. This metric is analogous to the standard dose length product (DLP), but derived differently to suit the unique properties of CBCT. Imaging protocols for head and neck, chest, and prostate sites delivered absolute doses of 0.9, 2.2, and 2.9 cGy to the center of the phantom, and DLPCBCT of 28.2, 665.1, and 565.3 mGy.cm, respectively. Results are displayed as dose per 100 mAs and as a function of key imaging parameters such as kVp, mAs, and collimator selection in a summary table. DLPCBCT was found to correlate closely with the dimension of the imaging region and provided a good indication of integral dose. It is important to assess integral dose when determining radiation doses to patients using CBCT. By incorporating measured beam profiles and DLP, this technique provides a CBCT dosimetry in radiotherapy phantoms and allows the prediction of imaging dose for new CBCT protocols.

PACS number: 87.57.uq

Progressive cone beam CT dose control in image-guided radiation therapy

PURPOSE

Cone beam CT (CBCT) in image-guided radiotherapy (IGRT) offers a tremendous advantage for treatment guidance. The associated imaging dose is a clinical concern. One unique feature of CBCT-based IGRT is that the same patient is repeatedly scanned during a treatment course, and the contents of CBCT images at different fractions are similar. The authors propose a progressive dose control (PDC) scheme to utilize this temporal correlation for imaging dose reduction.

METHODS

A dynamic CBCT scan protocol, as opposed to the static one in the current clinical practice, is proposed to gradually reduce the imaging dose in each treatment fraction. The CBCT image from each fraction is processed by a prior-image based nonlocal means (PINLM) module to enhance its quality. The increasing amount of prior information from previous CBCT images prevents degradation of image quality due to the reduced imaging dose. Two proof-of-principle experiments have been conducted using measured phantom data and Monte Carlo simulated patient data with deformation.

RESULTS

In the measured phantom case, utilizing a prior image acquired at 0.4 mAs, PINLM is able to improve the image quality of a CBCT acquired at 0.2 mAs by reducing the noise level from 34.95 to 12.45 HU. In the synthetic patient case, acceptable image quality is maintained at four consecutive fractions with gradually decreasing exposure levels of 0.4, 0.1, 0.07, and 0.05 mAs. When compared with the standard low-dose protocol of 0.4 mAs for each fraction, an overall imaging dose reduction of more than 60% is achieved.

CONCLUSIONS

PINLM-PDC is able to reduce CBCT imaging dose in IGRT utilizing the temporal correlations among the sequence of CBCT images while maintaining the quality.

Radiation exposure to patients from image guidance procedures and techniques to reduce the imaging dose

PURPOSE

To compare imaging doses from MV images, kV radiographs, and kV-CBCT and describe methods to reduce the dose to patient's organs using existing on-board imaging devices.

METHOD AND MATERIALS

Monte Carlo techniques were used to simulate kV X-ray sources. The kV image doses to a variety of patient anatomies were calculated by using the simulated realistic sources to deposit dose in patient CT images. For MV imaging, the doses for the same patients were calculated using a commercial treatment planning system.

RESULTS

Portal imaging results in the largest dose to anatomic structures, followed by Varian OBI CBCT, Varian TrueBeam CBCT and then kV radiographs. The imaging doses for the 50% volume from the DVHs, D50, to the eyes for representative head images are 4.3-4.8cGy; 0.05-0.06cGy; 0.04-0.05cGy; and, 0.12cGy; D50 to the bladder for representative pelvis images are 3.3cGy; 1.6cGy; 1.0cGy; and, 0.07cGy; while D50 to the heart for representative thorax images are 3.5cGy; 0.42cGy; 0.2cGy; and, 0.07cGy; when using portal imaging, OBI kV-CBCT scans, TrueBeam kV-CBCT scans and kV radiographs, respectively. The orientation of the kV beam can affect organ dose. For example, D50 to the eyes can be reduced from 0.12cGy using AP and right lateral radiographs to 0.008-0.017cGy when using PA and right lateral radiographs. In addition, organ exposures can be further reduced to 15-70% of their original values with the use of a full-fan, bow-tie filter for kV radiographs. In contrast, organ doses increase by a factor of ∼2-4 if bow-tie filters are not used during kV-CBCT acquisitions.

CONCLUSION

Current on-board kV imaging devices result in much lower imaging doses compared to MV imagers even taking into account of higher bone dose from kV X-rays. And a variety of approaches are available to significantly reduce the image doses.

Patient-specific three-dimensional concomitant dose from cone beam computed tomography exposure in image-guided radiotherapy

PURPOSE

The purpose of the present study was to quantify the concomitant dose received by patients undergoing cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) scanning in different clinical scenarios as a part of image-guided radiotherapy (IGRT) procedures.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

We calculated the three-dimensional concomitant dose received as a result of CBCT scans in 6 patients representing different clinical scenarios: two pelvis, two head and neck, and two chest. We assessed the effect that a daily on-line IGRT strategy would have on the patient dose distribution, assuming 40 CBCT scans throughout the treatment course. The additional dose to the planning target volume margin region was also estimated.

RESULTS

In the pelvis, a single CBCT scan delivered a mean dose to the femoral heads of 2-6 cGy and the rectum of 1-2 cGy. An additional dose to the planning target volume was within 1-3 cGy. In the chest, the mean dose to the planning target volume varied from 2.5 to 5 cGy. The lung and spinal cord planning organ at risk volume received ≤4 cGy and ≤5 cGy, respectively. In the head and neck, a single CBCT scan delivered a mean dose of 0.3 cGy, with bony structures receiving 0.5-0.8 cGy. The femoral heads received an additional dose of 1.5-2.5 Gy. A reduction of 20-30% in the mean dose to the organs at risk was achieved using bowtie filtration. In the head and neck, the dose to the eyes and brainstem was eliminated by decreasing the craniocaudal field size.

CONCLUSIONS

The additional dose from on-line IGRT procedures can be clinically relevant. The organ dose can be significantly reduced with the use of appropriate patient-specific settings. The concomitant dose from CBCT should be accounted for and the acquisition settings optimized for optimal IGRT strategies on a patient basis.

Current status and future perspective of flattening filter free photon beams

PURPOSE

Flattening filters (FFs) have been considered as an integral part of the treatment head of a medical accelerator for more than 50 years. The reasons for the longstanding use are, however, historical ones. Advanced treatment techniques, such as stereotactic radiotherapy or intensity modulated radiotherapy have stimulated the interest in operating linear accelerators in a flattening filter free (FFF) mode. The current manuscript reviews treatment head physics of FFF beams, describes their characteristics and the resulting potential advantages in their medical use, and closes with an outlook.

METHODS

A number of dosimetric benefits have been determined for FFF beams, which range from increased dose rate and dose per pulse to favorable output ratio in-air variation with field size, reduced energy variation across the beam, and reduced leakage and out-of-field dose, respectively. Finally, the softer photon spectrum of unflattened beams has implications on imaging strategies and radiation protection.

RESULTS

The dosimetric characteristics of FFF beams have an effect on treatment delivery, patient comfort, dose calculation accuracy, beam matching, absorbed dose determination, treatment planning, machine specific quality assurance, imaging, and radiation protection. When considering conventional C-arm linacs in a FFF mode, more studies are needed to specify and quantify the clinical advantages, especially with respect to treatment plan quality and quality assurance.

CONCLUSIONS

New treatment units are already on the market that operate without a FF or can be operated in a dedicated clinical FFF mode. Due to the convincing arguments of removing the FF, it is expected that more vendors will offer dedicated treatment units for advanced photon beam therapy in the near future. Several aspects related to standardization, dosimetry, treatment planning, and optimization need to be addressed in more detail in order to facilitate the clinical implementation of unflattened beams.