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Yang ZW, Yu Z, Zheng JF, Wang YH, Zhou XS. Rapid detection of trace nitrobenzene in water via SERS using a portable Raman spectrometer. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2024; 16:1531-1537. [PMID: 38391082 DOI: 10.1039/d4ay00014e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
Nitrobenzene is currently the most widely used explosive substance, and is known for its high toxicity and mutagenicity. It can cause severe environmental and water pollution, posing a risk to public health. Among various explosives analysis methods, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) has the advantages of fast analysis speed, low detection cost, and easy operation, and has become one of the most promising analytical detection methods. Here, we present a portable and reliable sol-based SERS method for the detection of trace amounts of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) in different water bodies. The Meisenheimer complex formed by nitrobenzene and hydrazine hydrate can assemble on unmodified Au nanoparticles in a sol via Au-N bonds, enabling rapid detection of TNT in seawater, lake water, and tap water using a portable Raman spectrometer. Experimental results show that this SERS method can complete the detection within a few minutes and the detection sensitivity can reach 0.01 mg L-1, which is far lower than China's national standard of no more than 0.5 mg L-1. Furthermore, this method was also successfully applied to detect trace 2,4-dinitrotoluene (2,4-DNT) and picric acid (2,4,6-trinitrophenol) in water, demonstrating its strong applicability for on-site detection of nitrobenzene explosives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen-Wei Yang
- Key Laboratory of Estuarine Ecological Security and Environmental Health, Tan Kah Kee College, Xiamen University, Zhangzhou 363105, China.
| | - Zhou Yu
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321004, China.
| | - Ju-Fang Zheng
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321004, China.
| | - Ya-Hao Wang
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321004, China.
| | - Xiao-Shun Zhou
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321004, China.
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Aleid A, Alhussaini K, Nisar M. Coherent scatter X-ray imaging of plastic–titanium targets. Radiat Phys Chem Oxf Engl 1993 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.radphyschem.2022.110582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
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3
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Korolkovas A. Fast X-ray diffraction (XRD) tomography for enhanced identification of materials. Sci Rep 2022; 12:19097. [PMID: 36351982 PMCID: PMC9646897 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-23396-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
X-ray computed tomography (CT) is a commercially established modality for imaging large objects like passenger luggage. CT can provide the density and the effective atomic number, which is not always sufficient to identify threats like explosives and narcotics, since they can have a similar composition to benign plastics, glass, or light metals. In these cases, X-ray diffraction (XRD) may be better suited to distinguish the threats. Unfortunately, the diffracted photon flux is typically much weaker than the transmitted one. Measurement of quality XRD data is therefore slower compared to CT, which is an economic challenge for potential customers like airports. In this article we numerically analyze a novel low-cost scanner design which captures CT and XRD signals simultaneously, and uses the least possible collimation to maximize the flux. To simulate a realistic instrument, we propose a forward model that includes the resolution-limiting effects of the polychromatic spectrum, the detector, and all the finite-size geometric factors. We then show how to reconstruct XRD patterns from a large phantom with multiple diffracting objects. We include a reasonable amount of photon counting noise (Poisson statistics), as well as measurement bias (incoherent scattering). Our XRD reconstruction adds material-specific information, albeit at a low resolution, to the already existing CT image, thus improving threat detection. Our theoretical model is implemented in GPU (Graphics Processing Unit) accelerated software which can be used to further optimize scanner designs for applications in security, healthcare, and manufacturing quality control.
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A MCNP simulation for a new dual-energy dual-beam X-ray inspection method using multi-angle compton scattering to determine the effective atomic number of explosives. Radiat Phys Chem Oxf Engl 1993 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.radphyschem.2022.110084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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5
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Chuong HD, Kim Anh NT, Sang TT, Ngoc Trang LT, Truc Linh NT, Dat NT, Tam HD. A study on the sensitivity of the measurement of liquid density at different scattering angles using a gamma scattering technique. Appl Radiat Isot 2021; 176:109897. [PMID: 34411935 DOI: 10.1016/j.apradiso.2021.109897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Revised: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
This study aims to evaluate the sensitivity of the measurement of liquid density at different scattering angles using a gamma scattering technique. To perform this, the linear calibration curves of the ratio R (R is the ratio of the area under a single scattering peak for a liquid relative to that for water) versus the liquid density were constructed at different scattering angles. The sensitivity of the measurement is defined as the slope coefficient of these linear calibration curves. The results obtained from the Monte Carlo simulation data showed that the sensitivity of the measurement at different scattering angles including 70°, 80°, 90°, 100°, 110°, 120°, 130°, and 140° changes in the range from 0.44 to 0.48. Also, the results obtained from the experiment when performing the measurements at scattering angles of 90°, 100°, 110°, and 120° ranged from 0.46 to 0.48. This confirms that the dependence of the sensitivity of the measurement on scattering angle is insignificant. Besides, for every experimental dataset, we used each of 8 above-obtained calibration curves, in turn, to determine the densities of 8 liquids which yield the relative deviation between the measured density and the reference one is mostly less than 5%, the relative deviation of remaining cases (64 of 256 measurements) is in the range of 5.0%-9.9%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huynh Dinh Chuong
- Nuclear Technique Laboratory, University of Science, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam; Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
| | - Nguyen Thi Kim Anh
- Faculty of Physics, Ho Chi Minh City University of Education, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam; Faculty of Physics and Engineering Physics, University of Science, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam; Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
| | - Truong Thanh Sang
- Faculty of Physics, Ho Chi Minh City University of Education, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam; Faculty of Physics and Engineering Physics, University of Science, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam; Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
| | - Le Thi Ngoc Trang
- Nuclear Technique Laboratory, University of Science, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam; Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
| | - Nguyen Thi Truc Linh
- Nuclear Technique Laboratory, University of Science, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam; Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
| | - Nguyen Thanh Dat
- Faculty of Physics, Ho Chi Minh City University of Education, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
| | - Hoang Duc Tam
- Faculty of Physics, Ho Chi Minh City University of Education, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam.
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Li W, Xin D, Tie S, Ren J, Dong S, Lei L, Zheng X, Zhao Y, Zhang WH. Zero-Dimensional Lead-Free FA 3Bi 2I 9 Single Crystals for High-Performance X-ray Detection. J Phys Chem Lett 2021; 12:1778-1785. [PMID: 33576232 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.1c00090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Direct X-ray detectors based on metal halide perovskites and their derivatives exhibit high sensitivity and low limit of detection (LoD). Compared with three-dimensional (3D) hybrid lead halide perovskites, low-dimensional A3Bi2I9 perovskite derivatives (A = Cs, Rb, NH4, CH3NH3(MA)) present better stability, greater environmental friendliness, and comparable X-ray detection performance. Here, we report FA3Bi2I9 (FA= CH(NH2)2) single crystals (SCs) as a new member of the A3Bi2I9 series for X-ray detection, which were prepared by the nucleation-controlled secondary solution constant temperature evaporation (SSCE) method. Centimeter-sized FA3Bi2I9 SCs show a full width at half-maximum (fwhm) of 0.0096°, which is superior to that of recently reported Cs3Bi2I9 (0.058°) and MA3Bi2I9 SCs (0.024°) obtained by inverse temperature crystallization (ITC). The as-grown FA3Bi2I9 SC shows a large resistivity of 7.8 × 1010 Ω cm and a high ion migration activation energy (Ea) of 0.56 eV, which can guarantee a low noise level and good operational stability under a large external bias. The FA3Bi2I9 SC detector exhibits a LoD of 0.2 μGyair s-1, a sensitivity of 598.1 μC Gyair -1 cm -2, and an X-ray detection efficiency of 33.5%, which are much better than those of the commercialized amorphous selenium detector. Results presented here will provide a new lead-free perovskite-type material to achieve green, sensitive, and stable X-ray detectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Li
- Sichuan Research Center of New Materials, Institute of Chemical Materials, China Academy of Engineering Physics, 596 Yinhe Road, Shuangliu, Chengdu 610200, China
| | - Deyu Xin
- Sichuan Research Center of New Materials, Institute of Chemical Materials, China Academy of Engineering Physics, 596 Yinhe Road, Shuangliu, Chengdu 610200, China
| | - Shujie Tie
- Sichuan Research Center of New Materials, Institute of Chemical Materials, China Academy of Engineering Physics, 596 Yinhe Road, Shuangliu, Chengdu 610200, China
| | - Jiwei Ren
- Institute of Materials, China Academy of Engineering Physics, Jiangyou 621908, China
| | - Siyin Dong
- Sichuan Research Center of New Materials, Institute of Chemical Materials, China Academy of Engineering Physics, 596 Yinhe Road, Shuangliu, Chengdu 610200, China
| | - Lin Lei
- Institute of Materials, China Academy of Engineering Physics, Jiangyou 621908, China
| | - Xiaojia Zheng
- Sichuan Research Center of New Materials, Institute of Chemical Materials, China Academy of Engineering Physics, 596 Yinhe Road, Shuangliu, Chengdu 610200, China
| | - Yiying Zhao
- Institute of Materials, China Academy of Engineering Physics, Jiangyou 621908, China
| | - Wen-Hua Zhang
- Sichuan Research Center of New Materials, Institute of Chemical Materials, China Academy of Engineering Physics, 596 Yinhe Road, Shuangliu, Chengdu 610200, China
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Fukushima H, Nakauchi D, Kato T, Kawaguchi N, Yanagida T. Scintillation and thermally-stimulated luminescence properties of Tm-doped CaHfO3 crystals. RADIAT MEAS 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.radmeas.2020.106280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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8
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Covalent organic hollow nanospheres constructed by using AIE-active units for nitrophenol explosives detection. Sci China Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11426-019-9667-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Durmaz FA, Brusan A, Ozturk C. Unified Open Hardware Platform for Digital X-Ray Devices; its Conceptual Model and First Implementation. IEEE JOURNAL OF TRANSLATIONAL ENGINEERING IN HEALTH AND MEDICINE 2020; 8:1800311. [PMID: 32617198 PMCID: PMC7326152 DOI: 10.1109/jtehm.2020.3000011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Revised: 04/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Background: Digital radiography devices are still the gold standard for diagnosis or therapy guidance in medicine. Despite the similarities between all direct digital x-ray systems, researchers and new companies face significant challenges during the development phase of innovative x-ray devices; each component is manufactured independently, guidance towards device integration from manufacturers is limited, global standards for device integration is lacking. Method: In scope of this study a plug-integrate-play (PIP) conceptual model for x-ray imaging system is introduced and implemented as an open hardware platform, SyncBox. The researchers are free to select each individual device component from different vendors based on their intended application and target performance are utilized in criteria. Result: As its first implementation, SyncBox and its platform a full body high resolution radiographic scanner that employs a novel TDI digital detector. Conclusion: We believe that SyncBox has a potential for introducing an open source hardware platform to x-ray equipment design.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Aytac Durmaz
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Boğaziçi University34684IstanbulTurkey
- Durmaz Technology AS34684IstanbulTurkey
- Pievision AS34684IstanbulTurkey
| | - Altay Brusan
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Boğaziçi University34684IstanbulTurkey
- Durmaz Technology AS34684IstanbulTurkey
| | - Cengizhan Ozturk
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Boğaziçi University34684IstanbulTurkey
- Center of Life Sciences and TechnologiesBoğaziçi University34684IstanbulTurkey
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A compact, high signal-to-noise ratio line-detector array Compton scatter imaging system based on silicon photomultipliers. Appl Radiat Isot 2019; 154:108845. [DOI: 10.1016/j.apradiso.2019.108845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2019] [Revised: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 08/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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11
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Song Q, Chen Y, Wang X, Yang B, Xu J, Xiong K, Mu B. Identification method of EDXRD spectra for illicit substance detection. OPTICS EXPRESS 2019; 27:26163-26174. [PMID: 31510476 DOI: 10.1364/oe.27.026163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2019] [Accepted: 08/16/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The energy-dispersive X-ray diffraction technique can be more practical and accurate for security applications such as detecting drugs and explosives. Here, an accurate multivariate discriminant analysis (MDA) method is used to identify the energy-dispersive X-ray diffraction spectra of illicit contraband. MDA is a comprehensive algorithm based on the principal component analysis algorithm, spectral angle matching method, and correlation coefficient method. Experiments are performed to acquire the diffracted spectra of drugs and common daily necessities. The accurate identification of models for an unknown substance can indicate the substance type in an already established database. Even in the case of shielding, the concealed object can be correctly identified, and the identification accuracy improved much compared with other algorithms.
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Abstract
Halide lead perovskites have attracted increasing attention in recent years for ionizing radiation detection due to their strong stopping power, defect-tolerance, large mobility-lifetime (μτ) product, tunable bandgap and simple single crystal growth from low-cost solution processes. In this review, we start with the requirement of material properties for high performance ionizing radiation detection based on direct detection mechanisms for applications in X-ray imaging and γ-ray energy spectroscopy. By comparing the performances of halide perovskites radiation detectors with current state-of-the-art ionizing radiation detectors, we show the promising features and challenges of halide perovskites as promising radiation detectors. Halide lead perovskites have emerged recently as possible candidates for high performance radiation detectors besides efficient solar cells. Here Wei et al. review the recent progress on perovskite based radiation detectors and suggest that they may compete with the conventional counterparts.
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Hättenschwiler N, Mendes M, Schwaninger A. Detecting Bombs in X-Ray Images of Hold Baggage: 2D Versus 3D Imaging. HUMAN FACTORS 2019; 61:305-321. [PMID: 30247937 PMCID: PMC6343424 DOI: 10.1177/0018720818799215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2017] [Accepted: 08/15/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study compared the visual inspection performance of airport security officers (screeners) when screening hold baggage with state-of-the-art 3D versus older 2D imaging. BACKGROUND 3D imaging based on computer tomography features better automated detection of explosives and higher baggage throughput than older 2D X-ray imaging technology. Nonetheless, some countries and airports hesitate to implement 3D systems due to their lower image quality and the concern that screeners will need extensive and specific training before they can be allowed to work with 3D imaging. METHOD Screeners working with 2D imaging (2D screeners) and screeners working with 3D imaging (3D screeners) conducted a simulated hold baggage screening task with both types of imaging. Differences in image quality of the imaging systems were assessed with the standard procedure for 2D imaging. RESULTS Despite lower image quality, screeners' detection performance with 3D imaging was similar to that with 2D imaging. 3D screeners revealed higher detection performance with both types of imaging than 2D screeners. CONCLUSION Features of 3D imaging systems (3D image rotation and slicing) seem to compensate for lower image quality. Visual inspection competency acquired with one type of imaging seems to transfer to visual inspection with the other type of imaging. APPLICATION Replacing older 2D with newer 3D imaging systems can be recommended. 2D screeners do not need extensive and specific training to achieve comparable detection performance with 3D imaging. Current image quality standards for 2D imaging need revision before they can be applied to 3D imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Hättenschwiler
- Nicole Hättenschwiler, School of Applied Psychology, Institute Humans in Complex Systems, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Riggenbachstrasse 16, CH-4600 Olten, Switzerland; e-mail:
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Numerical Analysis of a Sensorized Prodder for Landmine Detection by Using its Vibrational Characteristics. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/app9040744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Prodders are widely used devices in landmine detection. A sensorized prodder has been developed to detect shallow buried landmines by their vibrational characteristics. However, the influencing mechanisms of prodder’s components on the measured vibrational characteristics are not clear, and the vibration intensity of the buried landmine decreases with burial depth. A numerical analysis method is proposed to investigate the effects of parameters of prodder-object coupling system on the measured vibrational characteristics. The calculated main resonance frequency is 109.2 Hz, which corresponds well with the published analogy result of 110 Hz, and the mathematical method is also validated by the previous experimental results. Based on the proposed analysis method, an optimized prodder is designed, whereby the signal strength can theoretically increase 122.78%, which means that a greater depth of detection can be acquired. This optimal design is verified by the simulation experiment that was conducted with the optimization function of Adams software.
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Kelley J, Cui S, Baciak J. Measurement of the modulation transfer function for a backscatter radiography system used in nondestructive examination. Radiat Phys Chem Oxf Engl 1993 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.radphyschem.2018.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Zhu Z, Katsevich A, Pang S. Interior x-ray diffraction tomography with low-resolution exterior information. Phys Med Biol 2019; 64:025009. [PMID: 30540983 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6560/aaf819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
X-ray diffraction tomography (XDT) resolves spatially-variant XRD profiles within macroscopic objects, and provides improved material contrast compared to the conventional transmission-based computed tomography (CT). However, due to the small diffraction cross-section, XDT suffers from long imaging acquisition time, which could take tens of hours for a full scan using a table-top x-ray tube. In medical and industrial imaging applications, oftentimes only the XRD measurement within a region-of-interest (ROI) is required, which, together with the demand to reduce imaging time and radiation dose to the sample, motivates the development of interior XDT systems that scan and reconstruct only an internal region within the sample. The interior problem does not have a unique solution, and a direct inversion on the truncated projection data often leads to large reconstruction errors in ROI. To reduce the truncation artifacts, conventional attenuation-based interior reconstruction problems rely on a known region or piecewise constant constraint within the ROI. Here we propose a quasi-interior XDT scheme that incorporates a small fraction of projection information from the exterior region to assist ROI reconstruction. In the phantom simulation, a small amount (17% of exterior region) of added exterior projection data improves the reconstruction quality by ~50%. The addition of exterior samplings in the experiment demonstrates improved spatial and XRD profile reconstructions compared to total-variation-based reconstruction or sinogram extrapolation. We expect our quasi-interior XDT to obviate the requirement on prior knowledge of the object or its support, and to allow the ROI reconstruction to be performed with the fast, widely-used filtered back-projection algorithm for easy integration into real-time XDT imaging modules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheyuan Zhu
- CREOL, The College of Optics and Photonics, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, United States of America. Author to whom any correspondence should be addressed
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Treeaporn V, Neifeld MA. Detection with polychromatic x-ray pencil beam illumination: information-theoretic bounds. APPLIED OPTICS 2018; 57:1977-1992. [PMID: 29604035 DOI: 10.1364/ao.57.001977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Accepted: 02/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Non-destructive testing (NDT) by x-ray imaging is commonly used for finding manufacturing defects, cargo inspection, or security screening. These tasks can be regarded as examples of a detection problem where a target is either present or not. Task-specific information (TSI) [J. Opt. Soc. Am. A24, B25 (2007)JOAOD60740-323210.1364/JOSAA.24.000B25; Appl. Opt.47, 4457 (2008)APOPAI0003-693510.1364/AO.47.004457] bounds, an information-theoretic based metric, are presented for a threat detection task. A system using polychromatic x-ray pencil beam object illumination and energy-resolving detectors for both absorption and diffraction measurements is employed for this task. Water and diesel are two liquids chosen as non-threat and threat materials, respectively, for this study. Three different threat class configurations are examined: a homogeneous object with fixed thickness, a homogeneous object with stochastic thickness, and a dual-material object (i.e., representing a target and clutter) with stochastic thickness, where the threat material has a fixed thickness. We find for the threat class composed of a dual-material object that a minimum threat thickness of 4.5 cm is needed to achieve a desired TSI≥0.7 using a joint absorption and diffraction measurement.
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Zhu Z, Pang S. Three-dimensional reciprocal space x-ray coherent scattering tomography of two-dimensional object. Med Phys 2018; 45:1654-1661. [PMID: 29446097 DOI: 10.1002/mp.12813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2017] [Revised: 12/01/2017] [Accepted: 02/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE X-ray coherent scattering tomography is a powerful tool in discriminating biological tissues and bio-compatible materials. Conventional x-ray scattering tomography framework can only resolve isotropic scattering profile under the assumption that the material is amorphous or in powder form, which is not true especially for biological samples with orientation-dependent structure. Previous tomography schemes based on x-ray coherent scattering failed to preserve the scattering pattern from samples with preferred orientations, or required elaborated data acquisition scheme, which could limit its application in practical settings. Here, we demonstrate a simple imaging modality to preserve the anisotropic scattering signal in three-dimensional reciprocal (momentum transfer) space of a two-dimensional sample layer. METHODS By incorporating detector movement along the direction of x-ray beam, combined with a tomographic data acquisition scheme, we match the five dimensions of the measurements with the five dimensions (three in momentum transfer domain, and two in spatial domain) of the object. We employed a collimated pencil beam of a table-top copper-anode x-ray tube, along with a panel detector to investigate the feasibility of our method. RESULTS We have demonstrated x-ray coherent scattering tomographic imaging at a spatial resolution ~2 mm and momentum transfer resolution 0.01 Å-1 for the rotation-invariant scattering direction. For any arbitrary, non-rotation-invariant direction, the same spatial and momentum transfer resolution can be achieved based on the spatial information from the rotation-invariant direction. The reconstructed scattering profile of each pixel from the experiment is consistent with the x-ray diffraction profile of each material. The three-dimensional scattering pattern recovered from the measurement reveals the partially ordered molecular structure of Teflon wrap in our sample. CONCLUSIONS We extend the applicability of conventional x-ray coherent scattering tomography to the reconstruction of two-dimensional samples with anisotropic scattering profile by introducing additional degree of freedom on the detector. The presented method has the potential to achieve low-cost, high-specificity material discrimination based on x-ray coherent scattering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheyuan Zhu
- The College of Optics and Photonics, CREOL, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, 32816, USA
| | - Shuo Pang
- The College of Optics and Photonics, CREOL, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, 32816, USA
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Turhan H, Tukenmez E, Karagoz B, Bicak N. Highly fluorescent sensing of nitroaromatic explosives in aqueous media using pyrene-linked PBEMA microspheres. Talanta 2018; 179:107-114. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2017.10.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2017] [Revised: 10/24/2017] [Accepted: 10/28/2017] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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20
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Shaw PE, Burn PL. Real-time fluorescence quenching-based detection of nitro-containing explosive vapours: what are the key processes? Phys Chem Chem Phys 2018; 19:29714-29730. [PMID: 28850131 DOI: 10.1039/c7cp04602b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The detection of explosives continues to be a pressing global challenge with many potential technologies being pursued by the scientific research community. Luminescence-based detection of explosive vapours with an organic semiconductor has attracted much interest because of its potential for detectors that have high sensitivity, compact form factor, simple operation and low-cost. Despite the abundance of literature on novel sensor materials systems there are relatively few mechanistic studies targeted towards vapour-based sensing. In this Perspective, we will review the progress that has been made in understanding the processes that control the real-time luminescence quenching of thin films by analyte vapours. These are the non-radiative quenching process by which the sensor exciton decays, the analyte-sensor intermolecular binding interaction, and the diffusion process for the analyte vapours in the film. We comment on the contributions of each of these processes towards the sensing response and, in particular, the relative roles of analyte diffusion and exciton diffusion. While the latter has been historically judged to be one of, if not the primary, causes for the high sensitivity of many conjugated polymers to nitrated vapours, recent evidence suggests that long exciton diffusion lengths are unnecessary. The implications of these results on the development of sensor materials for real-time detection are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- P E Shaw
- Centre for Organic Photonics & Electronics, School of Chemistry & Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia.
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X-ray diffraction tomography with limited projection information. Sci Rep 2018; 8:522. [PMID: 29323224 PMCID: PMC5764978 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-19089-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2017] [Accepted: 12/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
X-ray diffraction tomography (XDT) records the spatially-resolved X-ray diffraction profile of an extended object. Compared to conventional transmission-based tomography, XDT displays high intrinsic contrast among materials of similar electron density and improves the accuracy in material identification thanks to the molecular structural information carried by diffracted photons. However, due to the weak diffraction signal, a tomographic scan covering the entire object typically requires a synchrotron facility to make the acquisition time more manageable. Imaging applications in medical and industrial settings usually do not require the examination of the entire object. Therefore, a diffraction tomography modality covering only the region of interest (ROI) and subsequent image reconstruction techniques with truncated projections are highly desirable. Here we propose a table-top diffraction tomography system that can resolve the spatially-variant diffraction form factor from internal regions within extended samples. We demonstrate that the interior reconstruction maintains the material contrast while reducing the imaging time by 6 folds. The presented method could accelerate the acquisition of XDT and be applied in portable imaging applications with a reduced radiation dose.
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Wang S, Wang Q, Feng X, Wang B, Yang L. Explosives in the Cage: Metal-Organic Frameworks for High-Energy Materials Sensing and Desensitization. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2017; 29. [PMID: 28731218 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201701898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2017] [Revised: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
An overview of the current status of coordination polymers and metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) pertaining to the field of energetic materials is provided. The explosive applications of MOFs are discussed from two aspects: one for detection of explosives, and the other for explosive desensitization. By virtue of their adjustable pore/cage sizes, high surface area, tunable functional sites, and rich host-guest chemistry, MOFs have emerged as promising candidates for both explosive sensing and desensitization. The challenges and perspectives in these two areas are thoroughly discussed, and the processing methods for practical applications are also discussed briefly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Photoelectronic/Electrophotonic Conversion Materials, Key Laboratory of Cluster Science, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, 5 South Zhongguancun Street, Beijing, 100081, P. R. China
| | - Qianyou Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Explosion Science and Technology of China, Beijing Institute of Technology, 5 South Zhongguancun Street, Beijing, 100081, P. R. China
| | - Xiao Feng
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Photoelectronic/Electrophotonic Conversion Materials, Key Laboratory of Cluster Science, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, 5 South Zhongguancun Street, Beijing, 100081, P. R. China
| | - Bo Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Photoelectronic/Electrophotonic Conversion Materials, Key Laboratory of Cluster Science, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, 5 South Zhongguancun Street, Beijing, 100081, P. R. China
| | - Li Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Explosion Science and Technology of China, Beijing Institute of Technology, 5 South Zhongguancun Street, Beijing, 100081, P. R. China
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Lehnert AL, Kearfott KJ. The Detection of Explosive Materials: Review of Considerations and Methods. NUCL TECHNOL 2017. [DOI: 10.13182/nt10-a10940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Adrienne L. Lehnert
- University of Michigan, Department of Nuclear Engineering and Radiological Sciences2355 Bonisteel Boulevard, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-2104
| | - Kimberlee J. Kearfott
- University of Michigan, Department of Nuclear Engineering and Radiological Sciences2355 Bonisteel Boulevard, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-2104
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Dicken A, Shevchuk A, Rogers K, Godber S, Evans P. High energy transmission annular beam X-ray diffraction. OPTICS EXPRESS 2015; 23:6304-6312. [PMID: 25836851 DOI: 10.1364/oe.23.006304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate material phase retrieval by linearly translating extended polycrystalline samples along the symmetry axis of an annular beam of high-energy X-rays. A series of pseudo-monochromatic diffraction images are recorded from the dark region encompassed by the beam. We measure Bragg maxima from different annular gauge volumes in the form of bright spots in the X-ray diffraction intensity. We present the experiment data from three materials with different crystallographic structural properties i.e. near ideal, large grain size and preferred orientation. This technique shows great promise for analytical inspection tasks requiring highly penetrating radiation such as security screening, medicine and non-destructive testing.
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Sugiyama M, Yanagida T, Fujimoto Y. Comparative study of Tm-doped and Tm-Sc co-doped Lu3Al5O12 scintillator. RADIAT MEAS 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.radmeas.2014.05.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Whetstone ZD, Kearfott KJ. A review of conventional explosives detection using active neutron interrogation. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s10967-014-3260-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Wang Y, Du X, Long Y, Tai H, Jiang Y. Detection of 2,4-dinitrotoluene using hydrogen-bond acidic polymer coated SAW sensor. CHINESE SCIENCE BULLETIN-CHINESE 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s11434-014-0257-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Long Y, Du X, Wang Y, Zhao J, Tai H, Tang X, Jiang Y. Hydrogen-bond acidic polymers coated SAW sensors for 2,4-dinitrotoluene detection. RSC Adv 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ra11525b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Two strong hydrogen-bond acidic (HBA) polymers DKAP and PLF, were coated onto 434 MHz surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices for rapid detection of an explosive compound, 2,4-dinitrotoluene (2,4-DNT).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yin Long
- School of Optoelectronic Information
- State Key Laboratory of Electronic Thin Films and Integrated Devices
- University of Electronic Science and Technology of China (UESTC)
- Cheng Du, PR China
| | - Xiaosong Du
- School of Optoelectronic Information
- State Key Laboratory of Electronic Thin Films and Integrated Devices
- University of Electronic Science and Technology of China (UESTC)
- Cheng Du, PR China
| | - Yang Wang
- School of Optoelectronic Information
- State Key Laboratory of Electronic Thin Films and Integrated Devices
- University of Electronic Science and Technology of China (UESTC)
- Cheng Du, PR China
| | - Jinzhu Zhao
- School of Optoelectronic Information
- State Key Laboratory of Electronic Thin Films and Integrated Devices
- University of Electronic Science and Technology of China (UESTC)
- Cheng Du, PR China
| | - Huiling Tai
- School of Optoelectronic Information
- State Key Laboratory of Electronic Thin Films and Integrated Devices
- University of Electronic Science and Technology of China (UESTC)
- Cheng Du, PR China
| | - Xianzhong Tang
- School of Optoelectronic Information
- State Key Laboratory of Electronic Thin Films and Integrated Devices
- University of Electronic Science and Technology of China (UESTC)
- Cheng Du, PR China
| | - Yadong Jiang
- School of Optoelectronic Information
- State Key Laboratory of Electronic Thin Films and Integrated Devices
- University of Electronic Science and Technology of China (UESTC)
- Cheng Du, PR China
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Wang Z, Stampanoni M. Quantitative x-ray radiography using grating interferometry: a feasibility study. Phys Med Biol 2013; 58:6815-26. [DOI: 10.1088/0031-9155/58/19/6815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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MacCabe KP, Holmgren AD, Tornai MP, Brady DJ. Snapshot 2D tomography via coded aperture x-ray scatter imaging. APPLIED OPTICS 2013; 52:4582-9. [PMID: 23842254 PMCID: PMC4406329 DOI: 10.1364/ao.52.004582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2013] [Accepted: 04/05/2013] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
This paper describes a fan beam coded aperture x-ray scatter imaging system that acquires a tomographic image from each snapshot. This technique exploits the cylindrical symmetry of the scattering cross section to avoid the scanning motion typically required by projection tomography. We use a coded aperture with a harmonic dependence to determine range and a shift code to determine cross range. Here we use a forward-scatter configuration to image 2D objects and use serial exposures to acquire tomographic video of motion within a plane. Our reconstruction algorithm also estimates the angular dependence of the scattered radiance, a step toward materials imaging and identification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth P. MacCabe
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Andrew D. Holmgren
- Departments of Radiology and Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Martin P. Tornai
- Departments of Radiology and Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - David J. Brady
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
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Li X, Li Q, Zhou H, Hao H, Wang T, Zhao S, Lu Y, Huang G. Rapid, on-site identification of explosives in nanoliter droplets using a UV reflected fiber optic sensor. Anal Chim Acta 2012; 751:112-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2012.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2012] [Revised: 08/20/2012] [Accepted: 09/15/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Wells K, Bradley D. A review of X-ray explosives detection techniques for checked baggage. Appl Radiat Isot 2012; 70:1729-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.apradiso.2012.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2011] [Revised: 01/11/2012] [Accepted: 01/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Cui C, Jorgensen SM, Eaker DR, Ritman EL. Direct three-dimensional coherently scattered x-ray microtomography. Med Phys 2011; 37:6317-22. [PMID: 21302788 DOI: 10.1118/1.3517194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE It has been shown that coherently scattered x rays can be used to discriminate and identify specific components in a mixture of low atomic weight materials. The authors demonstrated a new method of doing coherently scattered x-ray tomography with a thin sheet of x ray. METHODS A collimated x-ray fan-beam, a parallel polycapillary collimator, and a phantom consisting of several biocompatible materials of low attenuation-based contrast were used to investigate the feasibility of the method. Because of the particular experimental setup, only the phantom translation perpendicular to the x-ray beam is needed and, thus, there is no need of Radon-type tomographic reconstruction, except for the correction of the attenuation to the primary and scattered x rays, which was performed by using a conventional attenuation-based tomographic image data set. The coherent scatter image contrast changes with momentum transfer among component materials in the specimen were investigated with multiple x-ray sources with narrow bandwidth spectra generated with anode and filter combinations of Cu/Ni (8 keV), Mo/Zr (18 keV), and Ag/Pd (22 keV) and at multiple scatter angles by orienting the detector and polycapillary collimator at different angles to the illuminating x ray. RESULTS The contrast among different materials changes with the x-ray source energy and the angle at which the image was measured. The coherent scatter profiles obtained from the coherent scatter images are consistent with the published results. CONCLUSIONS This method can be used to directly generate the three-dimensional coherent scatter images of small animal, biopsies, or other small objects with low atomic weight biological or similar synthetic materials with low attenuation contrast. With equipment optimized, submillimeter spatial resolution may be achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Congwu Cui
- Department of Medical Physics, CancerCare Manitoba, 675 McDermot Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3E 0V9, Canada
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Priyada P, Margret M, Ramar R, Menaka M, Thilagam L, Venkataraman B, Raj B. Intercomparison of gamma scattering, gammatography, and radiography techniques for mild steel nonuniform corrosion detection. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2011; 82:035115. [PMID: 21585116 DOI: 10.1063/1.3562893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
This paper focuses on the mild steel (MS) corrosion detection and intercomparison of results obtained by gamma scattering, gammatography, and radiography techniques. The gamma scattering non-destructive evaluation (NDE) method utilizes scattered gamma radiation for the detection of corrosion, and the scattering experimental setup is an indigenously designed automated personal computer (PC) controlled scanning system consisting of computerized numerical control (CNC) controlled six-axis source detector system and four-axis job positioning system. The system has been successfully used to quantify the magnitude of corrosion and the thickness profile of a MS plate with nonuniform corrosion, and the results are correlated with those obtained from the conventional gammatography and radiography imaging measurements. A simple and straightforward reconstruction algorithm to reconstruct the densities of the objects under investigation and an unambiguous interpretation of the signal as a function of material density at any point of the thick object being inspected is described. In this simple and straightforward method the density of the target need not be known and only the knowledge of the target material's mass attenuation coefficients (composition) for the incident and scattered energies is enough to reconstruct the density of the each voxel of the specimen being studied. The Monte Carlo (MC) numerical simulation of the phenomena is done using the Monte Carlo N-Particle Transport Code (MCNP) and the quantitative estimates of the values of signal-to-noise ratio for different percentages of MS corrosion derived from these simulations are presented and the spectra are compared with the experimental data. The gammatography experiments are carried out using the same PC controlled scanning system in a narrow beam, good geometry setup, and the thickness loss is estimated from the measured transmitted intensity. Radiography of the MS plates is carried out using 160 kV x-ray machine. The digitized radiographs with a resolution of 50 μm are processed for the detection of corrosion damage in five different locations. The thickness losses due to the corrosion of the MS plate obtained by gamma scattering method are compared with those values obtained by gammatography and radiography techniques. The percentage thickness loss estimated at different positions of the corroded MS plate varies from 17.78 to 27.0, from 18.9 to 24.28, and from 18.9 to 24.28 by gamma scattering, gammatography, and radiography techniques, respectively. Overall, these results are consistent and in line with each other.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Priyada
- Radiological Safety Division, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam-603 102, Tamil Nadu, India.
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CdSe quantum dots capped PAMAM dendrimer nanocomposites for sensing nitroaromatic compounds. Talanta 2011; 83:1335-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2010.10.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2010] [Revised: 10/20/2010] [Accepted: 10/29/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Pfeiffer F, Bech M, Bunk O, Kraft P, Eikenberry EF, Brönnimann C, Grünzweig C, David C. Hard-X-ray dark-field imaging using a grating interferometer. NATURE MATERIALS 2008; 7:134-7. [PMID: 18204454 DOI: 10.1038/nmat2096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 519] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2007] [Accepted: 11/26/2007] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Imaging with visible light today uses numerous contrast mechanisms, including bright- and dark-field contrast, phase-contrast schemes and confocal and fluorescence-based methods. X-ray imaging, on the other hand, has only recently seen the development of an analogous variety of contrast modalities. Although X-ray phase-contrast imaging could successfully be implemented at a relatively early stage with several techniques, dark-field imaging, or more generally scattering-based imaging, with hard X-rays and good signal-to-noise ratio, in practice still remains a challenging task even at highly brilliant synchrotron sources. In this letter, we report a new approach on the basis of a grating interferometer that can efficiently yield dark-field scatter images of high quality, even with conventional X-ray tube sources. Because the image contrast is formed through the mechanism of small-angle scattering, it provides complementary and otherwise inaccessible structural information about the specimen at the micrometre and submicrometre length scale. Our approach is fully compatible with conventional transmission radiography and a recently developed hard-X-ray phase-contrast imaging scheme. Applications to X-ray medical imaging, industrial non-destructive testing and security screening are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Pfeiffer
- Paul Scherrer Institut, CH-5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland.
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Luo G, Zhou SQ, Han Z, Chen SK. Relationship between Scattered Photon Counts and Concentrations of Some Saline Solutions in Compton Scattering. CHINESE J CHEM 2007. [DOI: 10.1002/cjoc.200790033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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