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Zhang J, Li H, Deng Q, Huang AM, Qiu W, Wang L, Xiang Z, Yang R, Liang J, Liu Z. Correlation between omega-3 intake and the incidence of diabetic retinopathy based on NHANES from 2005 to 2008. Acta Diabetol 2024:10.1007/s00592-024-02267-4. [PMID: 38625392 DOI: 10.1007/s00592-024-02267-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024]
Abstract
AIMS To identify correlations between omega-3 intake and incidence of diabetic retinopathy (DR). METHODS This was a cross-sectional study using data from participants over age 40 in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2008. Metrics included participants' intake of omega-3 fatty acids, specifically three types of representative polyunsaturated fatty acids, DR prevalence, and demographic characteristics. Multiple logistic regression models were used to assess the relationship between omega-3 intake and DR. RESULTS Of the 1243 participants included in this study, omega-3 intake was lower in patients with DR relative to those without DR. Of the three polyunsaturated fatty acids within the omega-3 fatty acid family that we focused on, participants without DR consumed more docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) than those with DR. In contrast, there was no significant difference in the intake of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). Higher omega-3 intake was associated with a decreased risk of DR. In a crude model, the odds ratio (OR) was 0.548 (95% CI 0.315, 0.951; p = 0.033). In the fully adjusted model of omega-3 (model II), the adjusted OR was 0.525 (95% CI 0.306, 0.901; p = 0.021). DPA and DHA were also associated with a decreased risk of DR. In the full adjustment model (model II) of DPA and DHA, the adjusted ORs were 0.0002 (95% CI 0.000, 0.166; p = 0.014) and 0.293 (95% CI 0.105, 0.819; p = 0.020). Subgroup analysis showed that the protective effect of omega-3 against DR was more significant in younger patients (p value = 0.015). CONCLUSIONS In this cross-sectional study of the U.S. general population, we found that increased intake of omega-3 and its components, specifically DPA and DHA were negatively associated with DR incidence. This suggests that omega-3 may be a potential protective factor for DR and may help to prevent or delay the onset and progression of DR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingyu Zhang
- Ophthalmic Center, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510260, Guangdong, China
| | - Huangdong Li
- Ophthalmic Center, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510260, Guangdong, China
| | - Qian Deng
- Ophthalmic Center, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510260, Guangdong, China
- Zhejiang Provincal People's Hospital Bijie Hospital, Bijie, 551700, Guizhou, China
| | - Amy Michelle Huang
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Wangjian Qiu
- Ophthalmic Center, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510260, Guangdong, China
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shenzhen Songgang District People's Hospital, Shenzhen, 518105, China
| | - Li Wang
- Ophthalmic Center, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510260, Guangdong, China
| | - Zheng Xiang
- Ophthalmic Center, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510260, Guangdong, China
| | - Ruiming Yang
- Ophthalmic Center, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510260, Guangdong, China
| | - Jiamian Liang
- Ophthalmic Center, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510260, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhiping Liu
- Ophthalmic Center, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510260, Guangdong, China.
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Djuricic I, Calder PC. Omega-3 ( n-3) Fatty Acid-Statin Interaction: Evidence for a Novel Therapeutic Strategy for Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease. Nutrients 2024; 16:962. [PMID: 38612996 PMCID: PMC11013773 DOI: 10.3390/nu16070962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2024] [Revised: 03/24/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Managing atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) often involves a combination of lifestyle modifications and medications aiming to decrease the risk of cardiovascular outcomes, such as myocardial infarction and stroke. The aim of this article is to discuss possible omega-3 (n-3) fatty acid-statin interactions in the prevention and treatment of ASCVD and to provide evidence to consider for clinical practice, highlighting novel insights in this field. Statins and n-3 fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)) are commonly used to control cardiovascular risk factors in order to treat ASCVD. Statins are an important lipid-lowering therapy, primarily targeting low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels, while n-3 fatty acids address triglyceride (TG) concentrations. Both statins and n-3 fatty acids have pleiotropic actions which overlap, including improving endothelial function, modulation of inflammation, and stabilizing atherosclerotic plaques. Thus, both statins and n-3 fatty acids potentially mitigate the residual cardiovascular risk that remains beyond lipid lowering, such as persistent inflammation. EPA and DHA are both substrates for the synthesis of so-called specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs), a relatively recently recognized feature of their ability to combat inflammation. Interestingly, statins seem to have the ability to promote the production of some SPMs, suggesting a largely unrecognized interaction between statins and n-3 fatty acids with relevance to the control of inflammation. Although n-3 fatty acids are the major substrates for the production of SPMs, these signaling molecules may have additional therapeutic benefits beyond those provided by the precursor n-3 fatty acids themselves. In this article, we discuss the accumulating evidence that supports SPMs as a novel therapeutic tool and the possible statin-n-3 fatty acid interactions relevant to the prevention and treatment of ASCVD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Djuricic
- Department of Bromatology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Belgrade, 11221 Belgrade, Serbia;
| | - Philip C. Calder
- School of Human Development and Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK
- NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust and University of Southampton, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK
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Kaput J, Monteiro JP. Human Nutrition Research in the Data Era: Results of 11 Reports on the Effects of a Multiple-Micronutrient-Intervention Study. Nutrients 2024; 16:188. [PMID: 38257081 PMCID: PMC10819666 DOI: 10.3390/nu16020188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Revised: 12/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Large datasets have been used in molecular and genetic research for decades, but only a few studies have included nutrition and lifestyle factors. Our team conducted an n-of-1 intervention with 12 vitamins and five minerals in 9- to 13-year-old Brazilian children and teens with poor healthy-eating indices. A unique feature of the experimental design was the inclusion of a replication arm. Twenty-six types of data were acquired including clinical measures, whole-genome mapping, whole-exome sequencing, and proteomic and a variety of metabolomic measurements over two years. A goal of this study was to use these diverse data sets to discover previously undetected physiological effects associated with a poor diet that include a more complete micronutrient composition. We summarize the key findings of 11 reports from this study that (i) found that LDL and total cholesterol and fasting glucose decreased in the population after the intervention but with inter-individual variation; (ii) associated a polygenic risk score that predicted baseline vitamin B12 levels; (iii) identified metabotypes linking diet intake, genetic makeup, and metabolic physiology; (iv) found multiple biomarkers for nutrient and food groups; and (v) discovered metabolites and proteins that are associated with DNA damage. This summary also highlights the limitations and lessons in analyzing diverse omic data.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jacqueline Pontes Monteiro
- Faculty of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, Department of Pediatrics, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil;
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Klotz LO, Carlberg C. Nutrigenomics and redox regulation: Concepts relating to the Special Issue on nutrigenomics. Redox Biol 2023; 68:102920. [PMID: 37839954 PMCID: PMC10624588 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2023.102920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Revised: 09/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023] Open
Abstract
During our whole lifespan, from conception to death, the epigenomes of all tissues and cell types of our body integrate signals from the environment. This includes signals derived from our diet and the uptake of macro- and micronutrients. In most cases, this leads only to transient changes, but some effects of this epigenome programming process are persistent and can even be transferred to the next generation. Both epigenetic programming and redox processes are affected by the individual choice of diet and other lifestyle decisions like physical activity. The nutrient-gene communication pathways have adapted during human evolution and are essential for maintaining health. However, when they are maladaptive, such as in long-term obesity, they significantly contribute to diseases like type 2 diabetes and cancer. The field of nutrigenomics investigates nutrition-related signal transduction pathways and their effect on gene expression involving interactions both with the genome and the epigenomes. Several of these diet-(epi)genome interactions and the involved signal transduction cascades are redox-regulated. Examples include the effects of the NAD+/NADH ratio, vitamin C levels and secondary metabolites of dietary molecules from plants on the acetylation and methylation state of the epigenome as well as on gene expression through redox-sensitive pathways via the transcription factors NFE2L2 and FOXO. In this review, we summarize and extend on these topics as well as those discussed in the articles of this Special Issue and take them into the context of redox biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars-Oliver Klotz
- Institute of Nutritional Sciences, Nutrigenomics Section, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Carsten Carlberg
- Institute of Animal Reproduction and Food Research, Polish Academy of Sciences, PL-10-748, Olsztyn, Poland; School of Medicine, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Eastern Finland, FI-70211, Kuopio, Finland.
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Ma J, Kitaura H, Ohori F, Noguchi T, Marahleh A, Kinjo R, Kanou K, Ren J, Miura M, Narita K, Mizoguchi I. Generating Bone Marrow Chimeric Mouse Using GPR120 Deficient Mouse for the Study of DHA Inhibitory Effect on Osteoclast Formation and Bone Resorption. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:17000. [PMID: 38069322 PMCID: PMC10707107 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242317000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is an omega-3 fatty acid that exerts physiological effects via G protein-coupled receptor 120 (GPR120). In our previous studies, we figured out the inhibitory effects of DHA on TNF-α (Tumor necrosis factor-α)-induced osteoclastogenesis via GPR120 in vivo. Moreover, DHA directly suppressed RANKL expression in osteoblasts via GPR120 in vitro. In this study, we generated bone marrow chimeric mice using GPR120 deficient mice (GPR120-KO) to study the inhibitory effects of DHA on bone resorption and osteoclast formation. Bone marrow cells of wild-type (WT) or GPR120-KO mice were transplanted into irradiated recipient mice, which were WT or GPR120 deficient mice. The resulting chimeric mice contained stromal cells from the recipient and bone marrow cells, including osteoclast precursors, from the donor. These chimeric mice were used to perform a series of histological and microfocus computed tomography (micro-CT) analyses after TNF-α injection for induction of osteoclast formation with or without DHA. Osteoclast number and bone resorption were found to be significantly increased in chimeric mice, which did not express GPR120 in stromal cells, compared to chimeric mice, which expressed GPR120 in stromal cells. DHA was also found to suppress specific signaling pathways. We summarized that DHA suppressed TNF-α-induced stromal-dependent osteoclast formation and bone resorption via GPR120.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinghan Ma
- Division of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, Tohoku University Graduate School of Dentistry, 4-1, Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan; (J.M.); (F.O.); (T.N.); (R.K.); (K.K.); (J.R.); (M.M.); (K.N.); (I.M.)
| | - Hideki Kitaura
- Division of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, Tohoku University Graduate School of Dentistry, 4-1, Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan; (J.M.); (F.O.); (T.N.); (R.K.); (K.K.); (J.R.); (M.M.); (K.N.); (I.M.)
| | - Fumitoshi Ohori
- Division of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, Tohoku University Graduate School of Dentistry, 4-1, Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan; (J.M.); (F.O.); (T.N.); (R.K.); (K.K.); (J.R.); (M.M.); (K.N.); (I.M.)
| | - Takahiro Noguchi
- Division of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, Tohoku University Graduate School of Dentistry, 4-1, Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan; (J.M.); (F.O.); (T.N.); (R.K.); (K.K.); (J.R.); (M.M.); (K.N.); (I.M.)
| | - Aseel Marahleh
- Frontier Research Institute for Interdisciplinary Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8575, Japan;
| | - Ria Kinjo
- Division of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, Tohoku University Graduate School of Dentistry, 4-1, Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan; (J.M.); (F.O.); (T.N.); (R.K.); (K.K.); (J.R.); (M.M.); (K.N.); (I.M.)
| | - Kayoko Kanou
- Division of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, Tohoku University Graduate School of Dentistry, 4-1, Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan; (J.M.); (F.O.); (T.N.); (R.K.); (K.K.); (J.R.); (M.M.); (K.N.); (I.M.)
| | - Jiayi Ren
- Division of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, Tohoku University Graduate School of Dentistry, 4-1, Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan; (J.M.); (F.O.); (T.N.); (R.K.); (K.K.); (J.R.); (M.M.); (K.N.); (I.M.)
| | - Mariko Miura
- Division of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, Tohoku University Graduate School of Dentistry, 4-1, Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan; (J.M.); (F.O.); (T.N.); (R.K.); (K.K.); (J.R.); (M.M.); (K.N.); (I.M.)
| | - Kohei Narita
- Division of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, Tohoku University Graduate School of Dentistry, 4-1, Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan; (J.M.); (F.O.); (T.N.); (R.K.); (K.K.); (J.R.); (M.M.); (K.N.); (I.M.)
| | - Itaru Mizoguchi
- Division of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, Tohoku University Graduate School of Dentistry, 4-1, Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8575, Japan; (J.M.); (F.O.); (T.N.); (R.K.); (K.K.); (J.R.); (M.M.); (K.N.); (I.M.)
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Margaritelis NV. Personalized redox biology: Designs and concepts. Free Radic Biol Med 2023; 208:112-125. [PMID: 37541453 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2023.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/06/2023]
Abstract
Personalized interventions are regarded as a next-generation approach in almost all fields of biomedicine, such as clinical medicine, exercise, nutrition and pharmacology. At the same time, an increasing body of evidence indicates that redox processes regulate, at least in part, multiple aspects of human physiology and pathology. As a result, the idea of applying personalized redox treatments to improve their efficacy has gained popularity among researchers in recent years. The aim of the present primer-style review was to highlight some crucial yet underappreciated methodological, statistical, and interpretative concepts within the redox biology literature, while also providing a physiology-oriented perspective on personalized redox biology. The topics addressed are: (i) the critical issue of investigating the potential existence of inter-individual variability; (ii) the importance of distinguishing a genuine and consistent response of a subject from a chance finding; (iii) the challenge of accurately quantifying the effect of a redox treatment when dealing with 'extreme' groups due to mathematical coupling and regression to the mean; and (iv) research designs and analyses that have been implemented in other fields, and can be reframed and exploited in a redox biology context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikos V Margaritelis
- Department of Physical Education and Sports Science at Serres, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Agios Ioannis, 62122, Serres, Greece.
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Kologrivova IV, Suslova TE, Koshelskaya OA, Kravchenko ES, Kharitonova OA, Romanova EA, Vyrostkova AI, Boshchenko AA. Intermediate Monocytes and Circulating Endothelial Cells: Interplay with Severity of Atherosclerosis in Patients with Coronary Artery Disease and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Biomedicines 2023; 11:2911. [PMID: 38001912 PMCID: PMC10669450 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11112911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim was to investigate the association of monocyte heterogeneity and presence of circulating endothelial cells with the severity of coronary atherosclerosis in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). We recruited 62 patients with CAD, including 22 patients with DM2. The severity of atherosclerosis was evaluated using Gensini Score. Numbers of classical (CD14++CD16-), intermediate (CD14++CD16+), and non-classical (CD14+CD16++) monocyte subsets; circulating endothelial progenitor cells; and the presence of circulating endothelial cells were evaluated. Counts and frequencies of intermediate monocytes, but not glycaemia parameters, were associated with the severity of atherosclerosis in diabetic CAD patients (rs = 0.689; p = 0.001 and rs = 0.632; p = 0.002, respectively). Frequency of Tie2+ cells was lower in classical than in non-classical monocytes in CAD patients (p = 0.007), while in patients with association of CAD and T2DM, differences between Tie2+ monocytes subsets disappeared (p = 0.080). Circulating endothelial cells were determined in 100% of CAD+T2DM patients, and counts of CD14++CD16+ monocytes and concentration of TGF-β predicted the presence of circulating endothelial cells (sensitivity 92.3%; specificity 90.9%; AUC = 0.930). Thus, intermediate monocytes represent one of the key determinants of the appearance of circulating endothelial cells in all the patients with CAD, but are associated with the severity of atherosclerosis only in patients with association of CAD and T2DM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina V. Kologrivova
- Cardiology Research Institute, Tomsk National Research Medical Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, 111A Kievskaya, Tomsk 634012, Russia; (T.E.S.); (O.A.K.); (E.S.K.); (O.A.K.); (A.A.B.)
| | - Tatiana E. Suslova
- Cardiology Research Institute, Tomsk National Research Medical Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, 111A Kievskaya, Tomsk 634012, Russia; (T.E.S.); (O.A.K.); (E.S.K.); (O.A.K.); (A.A.B.)
| | - Olga A. Koshelskaya
- Cardiology Research Institute, Tomsk National Research Medical Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, 111A Kievskaya, Tomsk 634012, Russia; (T.E.S.); (O.A.K.); (E.S.K.); (O.A.K.); (A.A.B.)
| | - Elena S. Kravchenko
- Cardiology Research Institute, Tomsk National Research Medical Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, 111A Kievskaya, Tomsk 634012, Russia; (T.E.S.); (O.A.K.); (E.S.K.); (O.A.K.); (A.A.B.)
| | - Olga A. Kharitonova
- Cardiology Research Institute, Tomsk National Research Medical Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, 111A Kievskaya, Tomsk 634012, Russia; (T.E.S.); (O.A.K.); (E.S.K.); (O.A.K.); (A.A.B.)
| | - Ekaterina A. Romanova
- Department of Biomedicine, Siberian State Medical University, 2 Moskovskii trakt, Tomsk 634050, Russia; (E.A.R.); (A.I.V.)
| | - Alexandra I. Vyrostkova
- Department of Biomedicine, Siberian State Medical University, 2 Moskovskii trakt, Tomsk 634050, Russia; (E.A.R.); (A.I.V.)
| | - Alla A. Boshchenko
- Cardiology Research Institute, Tomsk National Research Medical Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, 111A Kievskaya, Tomsk 634012, Russia; (T.E.S.); (O.A.K.); (E.S.K.); (O.A.K.); (A.A.B.)
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Caffrey C, Leamy A, O’Sullivan E, Zabetakis I, Lordan R, Nasopoulou C. Cardiovascular Diseases and Marine Oils: A Focus on Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Polar Lipids. Mar Drugs 2023; 21:549. [PMID: 37999373 PMCID: PMC10672651 DOI: 10.3390/md21110549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Revised: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/21/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) remain the leading cause of death across the globe, hence, establishing strategies to counteract CVD are imperative to reduce mortality and the burden on health systems. Dietary modification is an effective primary prevention strategy against CVD. Research regarding dietary supplementation has become increasingly popular. This review focuses on the current in vivo, in vitro, and epidemiological studies associated with that of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) and polar lipids (PLs) and how they play a role against CVD. Furthermore, this review focuses on the results of several major clinical trials examining n-3 PUFAs regarding both primary and secondary prevention of CVD. Notably, we place a lens on the REDUCE-IT and STRENGTH trials. Finally, supplementation of PLs has recently been suggested as a potential alternative avenue for the reduction of CVD incidence versus neutral forms of n-3 PUFAs. However, the clinical evidence for this argument is currently rather limited. Therefore, we draw on the current literature to suggest future clinical trials for PL supplementation. We conclude that despite conflicting evidence, future human trials must be completed to confirm whether PL supplementation may be more effective than n-3 PUFA supplementation to reduce cardiovascular risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cliodhna Caffrey
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Limerick, V94 T9PX Limerick, Ireland; (C.C.); (A.L.); (E.O.); (I.Z.)
| | - Anna Leamy
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Limerick, V94 T9PX Limerick, Ireland; (C.C.); (A.L.); (E.O.); (I.Z.)
| | - Ellen O’Sullivan
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Limerick, V94 T9PX Limerick, Ireland; (C.C.); (A.L.); (E.O.); (I.Z.)
| | - Ioannis Zabetakis
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Limerick, V94 T9PX Limerick, Ireland; (C.C.); (A.L.); (E.O.); (I.Z.)
- Health Research Institute (HRI), University of Limerick, V94 T9PX Limerick, Ireland
- Bernal Institute, University of Limerick, V94 T9PX Limerick, Ireland
| | - Ronan Lordan
- Institute for Translational Medicine and Therapeutics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA;
- Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Department of Systems Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Constantina Nasopoulou
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry—Technology and Quality of Food of Animal Origin, Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of the Aegean, 814 00 Lemnos, Greece
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