Phenotypic variation in the Pseudomonas fluorescens clinical strain MFN1032

Modelling the colony growth dynamics of Listeria monocytogenes single cells after exposure to peracetic acid and acidic conditions

Studies of classical microbiology rely on the average behaviour of large cell populations without considering that clonal bacterial populations may bifurcate into phenotypic distinct sub-populations by random switching mechanisms.Listeria monocytogenes exposure to sublethal stresses may induce different physiological states that co-exist (i.e., sublethal injury or dormancy) and present variable resuscitation capacity. Exposures to peracetic acid (PAA; 10-30 ppm; for 3 h), acetic acid and hydrochloric acid (AA and HCl; pH 3.0-2.5; for 5 h) at 20 °C were used to induce different physiological states in L. monocytogenes, Scott A strain. After stress exposure, colony growth of single cells was monitored, on Tryptic Soy Agar supplemented with 0.6 % Yeast Extract, using time-lapse microscopy, at 37 °C. Images were acquired every 5 min and were analyzed using BaSCA framework. Most of the obtained growth curves of the colonies were fitted to the model of Baranyi and Roberts for the estimation of lag time (λ) and maximum specific growth rate (μmax), except the ones obtained after exposure to AA pH 2.7 and 2.5 that were fitted to the Trilinear model. The data of λ and μmax that followed a multivariate normal distribution were used to predict growth variability using Monte Carlo simulations. Outgrowth kinetics after treatment with AA (pH 2.7 and 2.5; for 5 h at 20 °C), PAA (30 ppm; for 3 h at 20 °C) revealed that these stress conditions increase the skewness of the variability distributions to the right, meaning that the variability in lag times increases in favour of longer outgrowth. Exposures to AA pH 2.5 and 30 ppm PAA resulted in two distinct subpopulations per generation with different growth dynamics. This switching mechanism may have evolved as a survival strategy for L. monocytogenes cells, maximizing the chances of survival. Simulation of microbial growth showed that heterogeneity in growth dynamics is increased when cells are recovering from exposure to sublethal stresses (i.e. PAA and acidic conditions) that may induce injury or dormancy.

PafS Containing GGDEF-Domain Regulates Life Activities of Pseudomonas glycinae MS82

Cyclic dimeric guanosine monophosphate (c-di-GMP) is synthesized by diguanylate cyclase (DGC) with the GGDEF domain. As a ubiquitous bacterial second messenger, it regulates diverse life-activity phenotypes in some bacteria. Although 38 genes encoding GGDEF-domain-containing proteins have been identified in the genome of the Pseudomonas glycinae strain MS82, whether c-di-GMP functions as a facilitator or repressor of life-activity phenotypes is poorly understood. In this study, one of the 38 genes containing a GGDEF domain in MS82, PafS was investigated to explore its regulatory function in bacterial life activities. The PafS-deletion mutant ΔPafS and reversion mutant PafS-comp were constructed by the method of biparental conjugation and homologous recombination. The life activities of the mutants, such as antifungal activity, biofilm formation ability, polysaccharide content, and motor behavior, were explored. The results showed that all life-activity phenotypes were significantly reduced after knocking out PafS, whereas all were significantly restored to a similar level to that of MS82 after the complementation of PafS. These results suggested that PafS plays an important role in the regulation of a range of cellular activities by c-di-GMP in P. glycinae MS82.

Pseudomonas Flagella: Generalities and Specificities

Flagella-driven motility is an important trait for bacterial colonization and virulence. Flagella rotate and propel bacteria in liquid or semi-liquid media to ensure such bacterial fitness. Bacterial flagella are composed of three parts: a membrane complex, a flexible-hook, and a flagellin filament. The most widely studied models in terms of the flagellar apparatus are E. coli and Salmonella. However, there are many differences between these enteric bacteria and the bacteria of the Pseudomonas genus. Enteric bacteria possess peritrichous flagella, in contrast to Pseudomonads, which possess polar flagella. In addition, flagellar gene expression in Pseudomonas is under a four-tiered regulatory circuit, whereas enteric bacteria express flagellar genes in a three-step manner. Here, we use knowledge of E. coli and Salmonella flagella to describe the general properties of flagella and then focus on the specificities of Pseudomonas flagella. After a description of flagellar structure, which is highly conserved among Gram-negative bacteria, we focus on the steps of flagellar assembly that differ between enteric and polar-flagellated bacteria. In addition, we summarize generalities concerning the fuel used for the production and rotation of the flagellar macromolecular complex. The last part summarizes known regulatory pathways and potential links with the type-six secretion system (T6SS).

Environmental conditions steer phenotypic switching in acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease-causing Vibrio parahaemolyticus, affecting PirAVP /PirBVP toxins production

Bacteria in nature are widely exposed to differential fluid shears which are often a trigger for phenotypic switches. The latter mediates transcriptional and translation remodelling of cellular metabolism impacting among others virulence, antimicrobial resistance and stress resistance. In this study, we evaluated the role of fluid shear on phenotypic switch in an acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease (AHPND)-causing Vibrio parahaemolyticus M0904 strain under both in vitro and in vivo conditions. The results showed that V. parahaemolyticus M0904 grown at lower shaking speed (110 rpm constant agitation, M0904/110), causing low fluid shear, develop cellular aggregates or floccules. These cells increased levan production (as verified by concanavalin binding) and developed differentially stained colonies on Congo red agar plates and resistance to antibiotics. In addition, the phenotypic switch causes a major shift in the protein secretome. At 120 rpm (M0904/120), PirA^VP /PirB^VP toxins are mainly produced, while at 110 rpm PirA^VP /PirB^VP toxins production is stopped and an alkaline phosphatase (ALP) PhoX becomes the dominant protein in the protein secretome. These observations are matched with a very strong reduction in virulence of M0904/110 towards two crustacean larvae, namely, Artemia and Macrobrachium. Taken together, our study provides substantial evidence for the existence of two phenotypic forms in AHPND V. parahaemolyticus strain displaying differential phenotypes. Moreover, as aerators and pumping devices are frequently used in shrimp aquaculture facilities, they can inflict fluid shear to the standing microbial agents. Hence, our study could provide a basis to understand the behaviour of AHPND-causing V. parahaemolyticus in aquaculture settings and open the possibility to monitor and control AHPND by steering phenotypes.

Unusual extracellular appendages deployed by the model strain Pseudomonas fluorescens C7R12

Pseudomonas fluorescens is considered to be a typical plant-associated saprophytic bacterium with no pathogenic potential. Indeed, some P. fluorescens strains are well-known rhizobacteria that promote plant growth by direct stimulation, by preventing the deleterious effects of pathogens, or both. Pseudomonas fluorescens C7R12 is a rhizosphere-competent strain that is effective as a biocontrol agent and promotes plant growth and arbuscular mycorrhization. This strain has been studied in detail, but no visual evidence has ever been obtained for extracellular structures potentially involved in its remarkable fitness and biocontrol performances. On transmission electron microscopy of negatively stained C7R12 cells, we observed the following appendages: multiple polar flagella, an inducible putative type three secretion system typical of phytopathogenic Pseudomonas syringae strains and densely bundled fimbria-like appendages forming a broad fractal-like dendritic network around single cells and microcolonies. The deployment of one or other of these elements on the bacterial surface depends on the composition and affinity for the water of the microenvironment. The existence, within this single strain, of machineries known to be involved in motility, chemotaxis, hypersensitive response, cellular adhesion and biofilm formation, may partly explain the strong interactions of strain C7R12 with plants and associated microflora in addition to the type three secretion system previously shown to be implied in mycorrhizae promotion.

Secondary Metabolism and Interspecific Competition Affect Accumulation of Spontaneous Mutants in the GacS-GacA Regulatory System in Pseudomonas protegens

Secondary metabolites are synthesized by many microorganisms and provide a fitness benefit in the presence of competitors and predators. Secondary metabolism also can be costly, as it shunts energy and intermediates from primary metabolism. In Pseudomonas spp., secondary metabolism is controlled by the GacS-GacA global regulatory system. Intriguingly, spontaneous mutations in gacS or gacA (Gac⁻ mutants) are commonly observed in laboratory cultures. Here we investigated the role of secondary metabolism in the accumulation of Gac⁻ mutants in Pseudomonas protegens strain Pf-5. Our results showed that secondary metabolism, specifically biosynthesis of the antimicrobial compound pyoluteorin, contributes significantly to the accumulation of Gac⁻ mutants. Pyoluteorin biosynthesis, which poses a metabolic burden on the producer cells, but not pyoluteorin itself, leads to the accumulation of the spontaneous mutants. Interspecific competition also influenced the accumulation of the Gac⁻ mutants: a reduced proportion of Gac⁻ mutants accumulated when P. protegens Pf-5 was cocultured with Bacillus subtilis than in pure cultures of strain Pf-5. Overall, our study associated a fitness trade-off with secondary metabolism, with metabolic costs versus competitive benefits of production influencing the evolution of P. protegens, assessed by the accumulation of Gac⁻ mutants.

Many microorganisms produce antibiotics, which contribute to ecologic fitness in natural environments where microbes constantly compete for resources with other organisms. However, biosynthesis of antibiotics is costly due to the metabolic burdens of the antibiotic-producing microorganism. Our results provide an example of the fitness trade-off associated with antibiotic production. Under noncompetitive conditions, antibiotic biosynthesis led to accumulation of spontaneous mutants lacking a master regulator of antibiotic production. However, relatively few of these spontaneous mutants accumulated when a competitor was present. Results from this work provide information on the evolution of antibiotic biosynthesis and provide a framework for their discovery and regulation.

Comparative genomics of Pseudomonas fluorescens subclade III strains from human lungs

Background

While the taxonomy and genomics of environmental strains from the P. fluorescens species-complex has been reported, little is known about P. fluorescens strains from clinical samples. In this report, we provide the first genomic analysis of P. fluorescens strains in which human vs. environmental isolates are compared.

Results

Seven P. fluorescens strains were isolated from respiratory samples from cystic fibrosis (CF) patients. The clinical strains could grow at a higher temperature (>34 °C) than has been reported for environmental strains. Draft genomes were generated for all of the clinical strains, and multi-locus sequence analysis placed them within subclade III of the P. fluorescens species-complex. All strains encoded type- II, −III, −IV, and -VI secretion systems, as well as the widespread colonization island (WCI). This is the first description of a WCI in P. fluorescens strains. All strains also encoded a complete I2/PfiT locus and showed evidence of horizontal gene transfer. The clinical strains were found to differ from the environmental strains in the number of genes involved in metal resistance, which may be a possible adaptation to chronic antibiotic exposure in the CF lung.

Conclusions

This is the largest comparative genomics analysis of P. fluorescens subclade III strains to date and includes the first clinical isolates. At a global level, the clinical P. fluorescens subclade III strains were largely indistinguishable from environmental P. fluorescens subclade III strains, supporting the idea that identifying strains as ‘environmental’ vs ‘clinical’ is not a phenotypic trait. Rather, strains within P. fluorescens subclade III will colonize and persist in any niche that provides the requirements necessary for growth.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-015-2261-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Evolutionary patchwork of an insecticidal toxin shared between plant-associated pseudomonads and the insect pathogens Photorhabdus and Xenorhabdus

BACKGROUND

Root-colonizing fluorescent pseudomonads are known for their excellent abilities to protect plants against soil-borne fungal pathogens. Some of these bacteria produce an insecticidal toxin (Fit) suggesting that they may exploit insect hosts as a secondary niche. However, the ecological relevance of insect toxicity and the mechanisms driving the evolution of toxin production remain puzzling.

RESULTS

Screening a large collection of plant-associated pseudomonads for insecticidal activity and presence of the Fit toxin revealed that Fit is highly indicative of insecticidal activity and predicts that Pseudomonas protegens and P. chlororaphis are exclusive Fit producers. A comparative evolutionary analysis of Fit toxin-producing Pseudomonas including the insect-pathogenic bacteria Photorhabdus and Xenorhadus, which produce the Fit related Mcf toxin, showed that fit genes are part of a dynamic genomic region with substantial presence/absence polymorphism and local variation in GC base composition. The patchy distribution and phylogenetic incongruence of fit genes indicate that the Fit cluster evolved via horizontal transfer, followed by functional integration of vertically transmitted genes, generating a unique Pseudomonas-specific insect toxin cluster.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that multiple independent evolutionary events led to formation of at least three versions of the Mcf/Fit toxin highlighting the dynamic nature of insect toxin evolution.

The pathogenic potential of Pseudomonas fluorescens MFN1032 on enterocytes can be modulated by serotonin, substance P and epinephrine

Pseudomonas fluorescens is a commensal bacterium present at low level in the human digestive tract that has also been reported in many clinical samples (blood, urinary tract, skin, lung, etc.) and sometimes associated with acute opportunistic infections. It has recently been found that the human β-defensin-2 can enhance the pathogenic potential of P. fluorescens. In this study, we evaluated the effect of other intestinal molecules (5HT, SP and Epi) on growth and virulence of the clinical strain P. fluorescens MFN1032. We found that P. fluorescens MFN1032 growth was not mainly affected by these factors, but several modifications in the virulence behavior of this bacterium were observed. 5HT, SP and Epi were able to modulate the motility of P. fluorescens MFN1032. 5HT and SP had an effect on pyoverdin production and IL-8 secretion, respectively. Infection of Caco-2/TC7 cells with P. fluorescens MFN1032 pretreated by SP or Epi enhanced the permeability of the monolayers and led to a partial delocalization of F-actin to the cytoplasm. These findings show that some intestinal molecules can modulate the pathogenic potential of P. fluorescens MFN1032. We can hypothesize that this dialogue between the host and the human gut microbiota may participate in health and disease.

Microbiology, genomics, and clinical significance of the Pseudomonas fluorescens species complex, an unappreciated colonizer of humans

Pseudomonas fluorescens is not generally considered a bacterial pathogen in humans; however, multiple culture-based and culture-independent studies have identified it at low levels in the indigenous microbiota of various body sites. With recent advances in comparative genomics, many isolates originally identified as the "species" P. fluorescens are now being reclassified as novel Pseudomonas species within the P. fluorescens "species complex." Although most widely studied for its role in the soil and the rhizosphere, P. fluorescens possesses a number of functional traits that provide it with the capability to grow and thrive in mammalian hosts. While significantly less virulent than P. aeruginosa, P. fluorescens can cause bacteremia in humans, with most reported cases being attributable either to transfusion of contaminated blood products or to use of contaminated equipment associated with intravenous infusions. Although not suspected of being an etiologic agent of pulmonary disease, there are a number of reports identifying it in respiratory samples. There is also an intriguing association between P. fluorescens and human disease, in that approximately 50% of Crohn's disease patients develop serum antibodies to P. fluorescens. Altogether, these reports are beginning to highlight a far more common, intriguing, and potentially complex association between humans and P. fluorescens during health and disease.

A Pseudomonas fluorescens type 6 secretion system is related to mucoidy, motility and bacterial competition

BACKGROUND

Pseudomonas fluorescens strain MFE01 secretes in abundance two Hcp proteins (haemolysin co-regulated proteins) Hcp1 and Hcp2, characteristic of a functional type 6 secretion system. Phenotypic studies have shown that MFE01 has antibacterial activity against a wide range of competitor bacteria, including rhizobacteria and clinically relevant bacteria. Mutagenesis of the hcp2 gene abolishes or reduces, depending on the target strain, MFE01 antibacterial activity. Hcp1, encoded by hcp1, may also be involved in bacterial competition. We therefore assessed the contribution of Hcp1 to competition of P. fluorescens MFE01 with other bacteria, by studying MFE01 mutants in various competitive conditions.

RESULTS

Mutation of hcp1 had pleiotropic effects on the MFE01 phenotype. It affected mucoidy of the strain and its motility and was associated with the loss of flagella, which were restored by introduction of plasmid expressing hcp1. The hcp1 mutation had no effect on bacterial competition during incubation in solid medium. MFE01 was able to sequester another P. fluorescens strain, MFN1032, under swimming conditions. The hcp2 mutant but not the hcp1 mutant conserved this ability. In competition assays on swarming medium, MFE01 impaired MFN1032 swarming and displayed killing activity. The hcp2 mutant, but not the hcp1 mutant, was able to reduce MFN1032 swarming. The hcp1 and hcp2 mutations each abolished killing activity in these conditions.

CONCLUSION

Our findings implicate type 6 secretion of Hcp1 in mucoidy and motility of MFE01. Our study is the first to establish a link between a type 6 secretion system and flagellin and mucoidy. Hcp1 also appears to contribute to limiting the motility of prey cells to facilitate killing mediated by Hcp2. Inhibition of motility associated with an Hcp protein has never been described. With this work, we illustrate the importance and versatility of type 6 secretion systems in bacterial adaptation and fitness.

Cyclic lipodepsipeptides produced by Pseudomonas spp. naturally present in raw milk induce inhibitory effects on microbiological inhibitor assays for antibiotic residue screening

Two Pseudomonas strains, identified as closely related to Pseudomonas tolaasii, were isolated from milk of a farm with frequent false-positive Delvotest results for screening putative antibiotic residues in raw milk executed as part of the regulatory quality programme. Growth at 5 to 7°C of these isolates in milk resulted in high lipolysis and the production of bacterial inhibitors. The two main bacterial inhibitors have a molecular weight of 1168.7 and 1140.7 Da respectively, are heat-tolerant and inhibit Geobacillus stearothermophilus var. calidolactis, the test strain of most of the commercially available microbiological inhibitor tests for screening of antibiotic residues in milk. Furthermore, these bacterial inhibitors show antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus and B. subtilis and also interfere negatively with yoghurt production. Following their isolation and purification with RP-HPLC, the inhibitors were identified by NMR analysis as cyclic lipodepsipeptides of the viscosin group. Our findings bring to light a new challenge for quality control in the dairy industry. By prolonging the refrigerated storage of raw milk, the keeping quality of milk is influenced by growth and metabolic activities of psychrotrophic bacteria such as pseudomonads. Besides an increased risk of possible spoilage of long shelf-life milk, the production at low temperature of natural bacterial inhibitors may also result in false-positive results for antibiotic residue screening tests based on microbial inhibitor assays thus leading to undue production loss.

Improvements on colony morphology identification towards bacterial profiling

Colony morphology may be an indicator of phenotypic variation, this being an important adaptive process adopted by bacteria to overcome environmental stressors. Furthermore, alterations in colony traits may reflect increased virulence and antimicrobial resistance. Despite the potential relevance of using colony morphological traits, the influence of experimental conditions on colony morphogenesis has been scarcely studied in detail. This study aims to clearly and systematically demonstrate the impact of some variables, such as colony growth time, plate colony density, culture medium, planktonic or biofilm mode of growth and strain genetic background, on bacterial colony morphology features using two Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains. Results, based on 5-replicate experiments, demonstrated that all variables influenced colony morphogenesis and 18 different morphotypes were identified, showing different sizes, forms, colours, textures and margins. Colony growth time and composition of the medium were the variables that caused the highest impact on colony differentiation both derived from planktonic and biofilm cultures. Colony morphology characterization before 45 h of incubation was considered inadequate and TSA, a non-selective medium, provided more colony diversity in contrast to P. aeruginosa selective media. In conclusion, data obtained emphasized the need to perform comparisons between colony morphologies in equivalent experimental conditions to avoid misinterpretation of microbial diagnostics and biomedical studies. Since colony morphotyping showed to be a reliable method to evaluate phenotypic switching and also to infer about bacterial diversity in biofilms, these unambiguous comparisons between morphotypes may offer a quite valuable input to clinical diagnosis, aiding the decision-making towards the selection of the most suitable antibiotic and supportive treatments.

Virulence of the Pseudomonas fluorescens clinical strain MFN1032 towards Dictyostelium discoideum and macrophages in relation with type III secretion system

Background

Pseudomonas fluorescens biovar I MFN1032 is a clinical isolate able to grow at 37°C. This strain displays secretion-mediated hemolytic activity involving phospholipase C and cyclolipopeptides, and a cell-associated hemolytic activity distinct from the secreted hemolytic activity. Cell-associated hemolysis is independent of biosurfactant production and remains in a gacA mutant. Disruption of the hrpU-like operon (the basal part of type III secretion system from rhizospheric strains) suppresses this activity. We hypothesized that this phenotype could reflect evolution of an ancestral mechanism involved in the survival of this species in its natural niche. In this study, we evaluated the hrpU-like operon’s contribution to other virulence mechanisms using a panel of Pseudomonas strains from various sources.

Results

We found that MFN1032 inhibited the growth of the amoebae Dictyostelium discoideum and that this inhibition involved the hrpU-like operon and was absent in a gacA mutant. MFN1032 was capable of causing macrophage lysis, if the hrpU-like operon was intact, and this cytotoxicity remained in a gacA mutant. Cell-associated hemolytic activity and macrophage necrosis were found in other P. fluorescens clinical isolates, but not in biocontrol P. fluorescens strains harbouring hrpU-like operon. The growth of Dictyostelium discoideum was inhibited to a different extent by P. fluorescens strains without correlation between this inhibition and hrpU-like operon sequences.

Conclusions

In P. fluorescens MFN1032, the basal part of type III secretion system plays a role in D. discoideum growth inhibition and macrophage necrosis. The inhibition of D. discoideum growth is dependent on the GacS/GacA system, while cell-associated hemolytic activity and macrophage lysis are not. Virulence against eukaryotic cells based on the hrpU-like operon may be more than just a stochastic evolution of a conserved system dedicated to survival in competition with natural predators such as amoebae. It may also mean that there are some important modifications of other type III secretion system components, which remain unknown. Cell-associated hemolysis might be a good indicator of the virulence of Pseudomonas fluorescens strain.

Boolean models of biosurfactants production in Pseudomonas fluorescens

Cyclolipopeptides (CLPs) are biosurfactants produced by numerous Pseudomonas fluorescens strains. CLP production is known to be regulated at least by the GacA/GacS two-component pathway, but the full regulatory network is yet largely unknown. In the clinical strain MFN1032, CLP production is abolished by a mutation in the phospholipase C gene (plcC) and not restored by plcC complementation. Their production is also subject to phenotypic variation. We used a modelling approach with Boolean networks, which takes into account all these observations concerning CLP production without any assumption on the topology of the considered network. Intensive computation yielded numerous models that satisfy these properties. All models minimizing the number of components point to a bistability in CLP production, which requires the presence of a yet unknown key self-inducible regulator. Furthermore, all suggest that a set of yet unexplained phenotypic variants might also be due to this epigenetic switch. The simplest of these Boolean networks was used to propose a biological regulatory network for CLP production. This modelling approach has allowed a possible regulation to be unravelled and an unusual behaviour of CLP production in P. fluorescens to be explained.

Antibiotic and antimicrobial peptide combinations: synergistic inhibition of Pseudomonas fluorescens and antibiotic-resistant variants

Variants resistant to penicillin G (RvP), streptomycin (RvS), lincomycin (RvL) and rifampicin (RvR) were developed from a colistin-sensitive isolate of Pseudomonas fluorescens LRC-R73 (P. fluorescens). Cell fatty acid composition, K(+) efflux and sensitivity to antimicrobial peptides (nisin Z, pediocin PA-1/AcH and colistin) alone or combined with antibiotics were determined. P. fluorescens was highly sensitive to kanamycin, tetracycline and chloramphenicol at minimal inhibitory concentrations of 0.366, 0.305 and 0.732 μg/ml respectively. P. fluorescens, RvP, RvS, RvL and RvR were resistant to nisin Z and pediocin PA-1/AcH at concentrations ≥100 μg/ml but sensitive to colistin at 0.076, 0.043, 0.344, 0.344 and 0.258 μg/ml respectively. A synergistic inhibitory effect (FICI ≤0.5) was observed when resistant variants were treated with peptide/antibiotic combinations. No significant effect on K(+) efflux from the resistant variants in the presence of antibiotics or peptides alone or combined was observed. The proportion of C16:0 was significantly higher in antibiotic-resistant variants than in the parent strain, accounting for 32.3%, 46.49%, 43.3%, 40.1% and 44.1% of the total fatty acids in P. fluorescens, RvP, RvS, RvL and RvR respectively. Combination of antibiotics with antimicrobial peptides could allow reduced use of antibiotics in medical applications and could help slow the emergence of bacteria resistant to antibiotics.

Pseudomonas fluorescens alters epithelial permeability and translocates across Caco-2/TC7 intestinal cells

Background

Pseudomonas fluorescens has long been considered as a psychrotrophic microorganism. Recently, we have shown that clinical strains of P. fluorescens (biovar 1) are able to adapt at a growth temperature of 37°C or above and induce a specific inflammatory response. Interestingly, a highly specific antigen of P. fluorescens, I2, is detected in the serum of patients with Crohn's disease but the possible role of this bacterium in the disease has not yet been explored. In the present study, we examined the ability of a psychrotrophic and a clinical strain of P. fluorescens to modulate the permeability of a Caco-2/TC7 intestinal epithelial model, reorganize the actin cytoskeleton, invade the target cells and translocate across the epithelium. The behaviour of these two strains was compared to that of the well known opportunistic pathogen P. aeruginosa PAO1.

Results

Both strains of P. fluorescens were found to decrease the transepithelial resistance (TER) of Caco-2/TC7 differentiated monolayers. This was associated with an increase in paracellular permeability and F-actin microfilaments rearrangements. Moreover, the invasion and translocation tests demonstrated that the two strains used in this study can invade and translocate across the differentiated Caco-2/TC7 cell monolayers.

Conclusions

The present work shows for the first time, that P. fluorescens is able to alter the intestinal epithelial barrier function by disorganizing the F-actin microfilament network. Moreover, we reveal that independently of their origins, the two P. fluorescens strains can translocate across differentiated Caco-2/TC7 cell monolayers by using the transcellular pathway. These findings could, at least in part, explain the presence of the P. fluorescens specific I2 antigen in the serum of patients with Crohn's disease.

Cell-associated hemolysis activity in the clinical strain of Pseudomonas fluorescens MFN1032

BACKGROUND

MFN1032 is a clinical Pseudomonas fluorescens strain able to grow at 37 degrees C. MFN1032 cells induce necrosis and apoptosis in rat glial cells at this temperature. This strain displays secretion-mediated hemolytic activity involving phospholipase C and cyclolipopeptides. Under laboratory conditions, this activity is not expressed at 37 degrees C. This activity is tightly regulated and is subject to phase variation.

RESULTS

We found that MFN1032 displays a cell-associated hemolytic activity distinct from the secreted hemolytic activity. Cell-associated hemolysis was expressed at 37 degrees C and was only detected in vitro in mid log growth phase in the presence of erythrocytes. We studied the regulation of this activity in the wild-type strain and in a mutant defective in the Gac two-component pathway. GacS/GacA is a negative regulator of this activity. In contrast to the Pseudomonas fluorescens strains PfO-1 and Pf5, whose genomes have been sequenced, the MFN1032 strain has the type III secretion-like genes hrcRST belonging to the hrpU operon. We showed that disruption of this operon abolished cell-associated hemolytic activity. This activity was not detected in P.fluorescens strains carrying similar hrc genes, as for the P. fluorescens psychrotrophic strain MF37.

CONCLUSIONS

To our knowledge this the first demonstration of cell-associated hemolytic activity of a clinical strain of Pseudomonas fluorescens. Moreover, this activity seems to be related to a functional hrpU operon and is independent of biosurfactant production. Precise link between a functional hrpU operon and cell-associated hemolytic activity remains to be elucidated.