Methods for quantitative evaluation of alveolar structure during in vivo microscopy

Pulmonary Fibrosis Ferret Model Demonstrates Sustained Fibrosis, Restrictive Physiology, and Aberrant Repair

Rationale

The role of MUC5B mucin expression in IPF pathogenesis is unknown. Bleomycin-exposed rodent models do not exhibit sustained fibrosis or airway remodeling. Unlike mice, ferrets have human-like distribution of MUC5B expressing cell types and natively express the risk-conferring variant that induces high MUC5B expression in humans. We hypothesized that ferrets would consequently exhibit aberrant repair to propagate fibrosis similar to human IPF.

Methods

Bleomycin (5U/kg) or saline-control was micro-sprayed intratracheally then wild-type ferrets were evaluated through 22 wks. Clinical phenotype was assessed with lung function. Fibrosis was assessed with µCT imaging and comparative histology with Ashcroft scoring. Airway remodeling was assessed with histology and quantitative immunofluorescence.

Results

Bleomycin ferrets exhibited sustained restrictive physiology including decreased inspiratory capacity, decreased compliance, and shifted Pressure-Volume loops through 22 wks. Volumetric µCT analysis revealed increased opacification of the lung bleomycin-ferrets. Histology showed extensive fibrotic injury that matured over time and MUC5B-positive cystic structures in the distal lung suggestive of honeycombing. Bleomycin ferrets had increased proportion of small airways that were double-positive for CCSP and alpha-tubulin compared to controls, indicating an aberrant 'proximalization' repair phenotype. Notably, this aberrant repair was associated with extent of fibrotic injury at the airway level.

Conclusions

Bleomycin-exposed ferrets exhibit sustained fibrosis through 22 wks and have pathologic features of IPF not found in rodents. Ferrets exhibited proximalization of the distal airways and other pathologic features characteristic of human IPF. MUC5B expression through native cell types may play a key role in promoting airway remodeling and lung injury in IPF.

A simple and economical method for unbiasedly quantifying the alveolar size of entire mouse lung tissue utilizing Hematoxylin and Eosin Staining

Alveolar, the smallest structural and functional units within the respiratory system, play a crucial role in maintaining lung function. Alveolar damage is a typical pathological hallmark of respiratory diseases. Nevertheless, there is currently no simple, rapid, economical, and unbiased method for quantifying alveolar size for entire lung tissue. Here, firstly, we conducted lung sample slicing based on the size, shape, and distribution of airway branches of different lobes. Next, we performed HE staining on different slices. Then, we provided an unbiased quantification of alveolar size using free software ImageJ. Through this protocol, we demonstrated that C57Bl/6 mice exhibit varying alveolar sizes among different lobes. Collectively, we provided a simple and unbiased method for a more comprehensive quantification of alveolar size in mice, which holds promise for a broader range of respiratory research using mouse models.

Vaporization of perfluorocarbon attenuates sea-water-drowning-induced acute lung injury by deactivating the NLRP3 inflammasomes in canines

Seawater-drowning-induced acute lung injury (SD-ALI) is a life-threatening disorder characterized by increased alveolar-capillary permeability, an excessive inflammatory response, and refractory hypoxemia. Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) are biocompatible compounds that are chemically and biologically inert and lack toxicity as oxygen carriers, which could reduce lung injury in vitro and in vivo. The aim of our study was to explore whether the vaporization of PFCs could reduce the severity of SD-ALI in canines and investigate the underlying mechanisms. Eighteen beagle dogs were randomly divided into three groups: the seawater drowning (SW), perfluorocarbon (PFC), and control groups. The dogs in the SW group were intratracheally administered seawater to establish the animal model. The dogs in the PFC group were treated with vaporized PFCs. Probe-based confocal laser endomicroscopy (pCLE) was performed at 3 h. The blood gas, volume air index (VAI), pathological changes, and wet-to-dry (W/D) lung tissue ratios were assessed. The expression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), nuclear respiratory factor-1 (NRF1), and NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain containing-3 (NLRP3) inflammasomes was determined by means of quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and immunological histological chemistry. The SW group showed higher lung injury scores and W/D ratios, and lower VAI compared to the control group, and treatment with PFCs could reverse the change of lung injury score, W/D ratio and VAI. PFCs deactivated NLRP3 inflammasomes and reduced the release of caspase-1, interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and interleukin-18 (IL-18) by enhancing the expression of HO-1 and NRF1. Our results suggest that the vaporization of PFCs could attenuate SD-ALI by deactivating NLRP3 inflammasomes via the HO-1/NRF1 pathway.

The Application of Nanopore Sequencing Technology to the Study of Dinoflagellates: A Proof of Concept Study for Rapid Sequence-Based Discrimination of Potentially Harmful Algae

Harmful algal blooms (HABs) are a naturally occurring global phenomena that have the potential to impact fisheries, leisure and ecosystems, as well as posing a significant hazard to animal and human health. There is significant interest in the development and application of methodologies to study all aspects of the causative organisms and toxins associated with these events. This paper reports the first application of nanopore sequencing technology for the detection of eukaryotic harmful algal bloom organisms. The MinION sequencing platform from Oxford Nanopore technologies provides long read sequencing capabilities in a compact, low cost, and portable format. In this study we used the MinION to sequence long-range PCR amplicons from multiple dinoflagellate species with a focus on the genus Alexandrium. Primers applicable to a wide range of dinoflagellates were selected, meaning that although the study was primarily focused on Alexandrium the applicability to three additional genera of toxic algae, namely; Gonyaulax, Prorocentrum, and Lingulodinium was also demonstrated. The amplicon generated here spanned approximately 3 kb of the rDNA cassette, including most of the 18S, the complete ITS1, 5.8S, ITS2 and regions D1 and D2 of the 28S. The inclusion of barcode genes as well as highly conserved regions resulted in identification of organisms to the species level. The analysis of reference cultures resulted in over 99% of all sequences being attributed to the correct species with an average identity above 95% from a reference list of over 200 species (see Supplementary Material 1). The use of mock community analysis within environmental samples highlighted that complex matrices did not prevent the ability to distinguish between phylogenetically similar species. Successful identification of causative organisms in environmental samples during natural toxic events further highlighted the potential of the assay. This study proves the suitability of nanopore sequencing technology for taxonomic identification of harmful algal bloom organisms and acquisition of data relevant to the World Health Organisations "one health" approach to marine monitoring.

A murine model to study vasoreactivity and intravascular flow in lung isograft microvessels

Intravital microscopy of orthotopic lung tissue is technically demanding, especially for repeated investigations. Therefore, we have established a novel approach, which allows non-invasive repetitive in vivo microscopy of ectopic lung tissue in dorsal skinfold chambers. Syngeneic subpleural peripheral lung tissue and autologous endometrium (control) were transplanted onto the striated muscle within dorsal skinfold chambers of C57BL/6 mice. Grafts were analysed by intravital fluorescence microscopy over 14 days. Angiogenesis occurred in the grafts on day 3, as indicated by sinusoidal microvessels on the grafts’ edges with very slow blood flow, perifocal oedema, and haemorrhage. By day 10, lung transplants were completely revascularized, exhibited a dense network of microvessels with irregular diameters, chaotic angioarchitecture, and high blood flow. Compared to lung tissue, endometrial grafts contained a structured, glomerulus-like vessel architecture with lower blood flow. Despite missing ventilation, hypoxic vasoconstriction of the lung tissue arterioles occurred. In contrast, endometrium tissue arterioles dilated during hypoxia and constricted in hyperoxia. This demonstrates that ectopic lung grafts keep their ability for organ-specific hypoxic vasoconstriction. These findings indicate that our approach is suitable for repetitive in vivo pulmonary microcirculation analyses. The high blood flow and hypoxia-induced vasoconstriction in lung grafts suggest a physiological intrinsic vasoregulation independent of the recipient tissue.

Diel Variations in Cell Abundance and Trophic Transfer of Diarrheic Toxins during a Massive Dinophysis Bloom in Southern Brazil

Dinophysis spp. are a major source of diarrheic toxins to marine food webs, especially during blooms. This study documented the occurrence, in late May 2016, of a massive toxic bloom of the Dinophysis acuminata complex along the southern coast of Brazil, associated with an episode of marked salinity stratification. The study tracked the daily vertical distribution of Dinophysis spp. cells and their ciliate prey, Mesodinium cf. rubrum, and quantified the amount of lipophilic toxins present in seston and accumulated by various marine organisms in the food web. The abundance of the D. acuminata complex reached 43 × 10⁴ cells·L^−1 at 1.0 m depth at the peak of the bloom. Maximum cell densities of cryptophyceans and M. cf. rubrum (>500 × 10⁴ and 18 × 10⁴ cell·L^−1, respectively) were recorded on the first day of sampling, one week before the peak in abundance of the D. acuminata complex. The diarrheic toxin okadaic acid (OA) was the only toxin detected during the bloom, attaining unprecedented, high concentrations of up to 829 µg·L^−1 in seston, and 143 ± 93 pg·cell^−1 in individually picked cells of the D. acuminata complex. Suspension-feeders such as the mussel, Perna perna, and barnacle, Megabalanus tintinnabulum, accumulated maximum OA levels (up to 578.4 and 21.9 µg total OA·Kg^−1, respectively) during early bloom stages, whereas predators and detritivores such as Caprellidae amphipods (154.6 µg·Kg^−1), Stramonita haemastoma gastropods (111.6 µg·Kg^−1), Pilumnus spinosissimus crabs (33.4 µg·Kg^−1) and a commercially important species of shrimp, Xiphopenaeus kroyeri (7.2 µg·Kg^−1), only incorporated OA from mid- to late bloom stages. Conjugated forms of OA were dominant (>70%) in most organisms, except in blenny fish, Hypleurochilus fissicornis, and polychaetes, Pseudonereis palpata (up to 59.3 and 164.6 µg total OA·Kg^−1, respectively), which contained mostly free-OA throughout the bloom. Although algal toxins are only regulated in bivalves during toxic blooms in most countries, including Brazil, this study indicates that human seafood consumers might be exposed to moderate toxin levels from a variety of other vectors during intense toxic outbreaks.

Acute Lung Injury Causes Asynchronous Alveolar Ventilation That Can Be Corrected by Individual Sighs

RATIONALE

Improved ventilation strategies have been the mainstay for reducing mortality in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Their unique clinical effectiveness is, however, unmatched by our understanding of the underlying mechanobiology, and their impact on alveolar dynamics and gas exchange remains largely speculative.

OBJECTIVES

To assess changes in alveolar dynamics and associated effects on local gas exchange in experimental models of acute lung injury (ALI) and their responsiveness to sighs.

METHODS

Alveolar dynamics and local gas exchange were studied in vivo by darkfield microscopy and multispectral oximetry in experimental murine models of ALI induced by hydrochloric acid, Tween instillation, or in antibody-mediated transfusion-related ALI.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Independent of injury mode, ALI resulted in asynchronous alveolar ventilation characteristic of alveolar pendelluft, which either spontaneously resolved or progressed to a complete cessation or even inversion of alveolar ventilation. The functional relevance of the latter phenomena was evident as impaired blood oxygenation in juxtaposed lung capillaries. Individual sighs (2 × 10 s at inspiratory plateau pressure of 30 cm H2O) largely restored normal alveolar dynamics and gas exchange in acid-induced ALI, yet not in Tween-induced surfactant depletion.

CONCLUSIONS

We describe for the first time in detail the different forms and temporal sequence of impaired alveolar dynamics in the acutely injured lung and report the first direct visualization of alveolar pendelluft. Moreover, we identify individual sighs as an effective strategy to restore intact alveolar ventilation by a mechanism independent of alveolar collapse and reopening.

Analysis of regional compliance in a porcine model of acute lung injury

Lung protective ventilation in acute lung injury (ALI) focuses on using low tidal volumes and adequate levels of positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP). Identifying optimal pressure is difficult because pressure-volume (PV) relations differ regionally. Precise analysis demands local measurements of pressures and related alveolar morphologies. In a porcine model of surfactant depletion (n=24), we combined measuring static pressures with endoscopic microscopy and electrical impedance tomography (EIT) to examine regional PV loops and morphologic heterogeneities between healthy (control group; CON) and ALI lungs ventilated with low (LVT) or high tidal volumes (HVT). Quantification included indices for microscopy (Volume Air Index (VAI), Heterogeneity and Circularity Index), EIT analysis and calculation of regional compliances due to generated PV loops. We found that: (1) VAI decreased in lower lobe after ALI, (2) electrical impedance decreased in dorsal regions and (3) PV loops differed regionally. Further studies should prove the potentials of these techniques on individual respiratory settings and clinical outcome.

Evaluation of optical reflectance techniques for imaging of alveolar structure

Three-dimensional (3-D) visualization of the fine structures within the lung parenchyma could advance our understanding of alveolar physiology and pathophysiology. Current knowledge has been primarily based on histology, but it is a destructive two-dimensional (2-D) technique that is limited by tissue processing artifacts. Micro-CT provides high-resolution three-dimensional (3-D) imaging within a limited sample size, but is not applicable to intact lungs from larger animals or humans. Optical reflectance techniques offer the promise to visualize alveolar regions of the large animal or human lung with sub-cellular resolution in three dimensions. Here, we present the capabilities of three optical reflectance techniques, namely optical frequency domain imaging, spectrally encoded confocal microscopy, and full field optical coherence microscopy, to visualize both gross architecture as well as cellular detail in fixed, phosphate buffered saline-immersed rat lung tissue. Images from all techniques were correlated to each other and then to corresponding histology. Spatial and temporal resolution, imaging depth, and suitability for in vivo probe development were compared to highlight the merits and limitations of each technology for studying respiratory physiology at the alveolar level.