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Jenner LA, Farran EK, Welham A, Jones C, Moss J. The use of eye-tracking technology as a tool to evaluate social cognition in people with an intellectual disability: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurodev Disord 2023; 15:42. [PMID: 38044457 PMCID: PMC10694880 DOI: 10.1186/s11689-023-09506-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Relatively little is known about social cognition in people with intellectual disability (ID), and how this may support understanding of co-occurring autism. A limitation of previous research is that traditional social-cognitive tasks place a demand on domain-general cognition and language abilities. These tasks are not suitable for people with ID and lack the sensitivity to detect subtle social-cognitive processes. In autism research, eye-tracking technology has offered an effective method of evaluating social cognition-indicating associations between visual social attention and autism characteristics. The present systematic review synthesised research which has used eye-tracking technology to study social cognition in ID. A meta-analysis was used to explore whether visual attention on socially salient regions (SSRs) of stimuli during these tasks correlated with degree of autism characteristics presented on clinical assessment tools. METHOD Searches were conducted using four databases, research mailing lists, and citation tracking. Following in-depth screening and exclusion of studies with low methodological quality, 49 articles were included in the review. A correlational meta-analysis was run on Pearson's r values obtained from twelve studies, reporting the relationship between visual attention on SSRs and autism characteristics. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS Eye-tracking technology was used to measure different social-cognitive abilities across a range of syndromic and non-syndromic ID groups. Restricted scan paths and eye-region avoidance appeared to impact people's ability to make explicit inferences about mental states and social cues. Readiness to attend to social stimuli also varied depending on social content and degree of familiarity. A meta-analysis using a random effects model revealed a significant negative correlation (r = -.28, [95% CI -.47, -.08]) between visual attention on SSRs and autism characteristics across ID groups. Together, these findings highlight how eye-tracking can be used as an accessible tool to measure more subtle social-cognitive processes, which appear to reflect variability in observable behaviour. Further research is needed to be able to explore additional covariates (e.g. ID severity, ADHD, anxiety) which may be related to visual attention on SSRs, to different degrees within syndromic and non-syndromic ID groups, in order to determine the specificity of the association with autism characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- L A Jenner
- School of Psychology, University of Surrey, Surrey, UK.
| | - E K Farran
- School of Psychology, University of Surrey, Surrey, UK
| | - A Welham
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - C Jones
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - J Moss
- School of Psychology, University of Surrey, Surrey, UK
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Morel A, Peyroux E, Leleu A, Favre E, Franck N, Demily C. Overview of Social Cognitive Dysfunctions in Rare Developmental Syndromes With Psychiatric Phenotype. Front Pediatr 2018; 6:102. [PMID: 29774207 PMCID: PMC5943552 DOI: 10.3389/fped.2018.00102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2017] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Rare neurodevelopmental syndromes often present social cognitive deficits that may underlie difficulties in social interactions and increase the risk of psychosis or autism spectrum disorders. However, little is known regarding the specificities of social cognitive impairment across syndromes while it remains a major challenge for the care. Our review provides an overview of social cognitive dysfunctions in rare diseases associated with psychiatric symptoms (with a prevalence estimated between 1 in 1,200 and 1 in 25,000 live births: 22q11.2 deletion syndrome, Angelman syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome, Rett syndrome, Smith-Magenis syndrome, Turner syndrome, and Williams syndrome) and shed some light on the specific mechanisms that may underlie these skills in each clinical presentation. We first detail the different processes included in the generic expression "social cognition" before summarizing the genotype, psychiatric phenotype, and non-social cognitive profile in each syndrome. Then, we offer a systematic review of the social cognitive abilities and the disturbed mechanisms they are likely associated with. We followed the PRISMA process, including the definition of the relevant search terms, the selection of studies based on clear inclusion, and exclusion criteria and the quality appraisal of papers. We finally provide insights that may have considerable influence on the development of adapted therapeutic interventions such as social cognitive training (SCT) therapies specifically designed to target the psychiatric phenotype. The results of this review suggest that social cognition impairments share some similarities across syndromes. We propose that social cognitive impairments are strongly involved in behavioral symptoms regardless of the overall cognitive level measured by intelligence quotient. Better understanding the mechanisms underlying impaired social cognition may lead to adapt therapeutic interventions. The studies targeting social cognition processes offer new thoughts about the development of specific cognitive training programs, as they highlight the importance of connecting neurocognitive and SCT techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurore Morel
- Scientific Brain Training, Reference Center for Rare Diseases GénoPsy, CH Le Vinatier, UMR 5229, Université Lyon 1, CNRS, Lyon, France
| | - Elodie Peyroux
- Reference Center for Rare Diseases GénoPsy, SUR/CL3R: Service Universitaire de Réhabilitation, CH Le Vinatier, UMR 5229, Université Lyon 1, CNRS, Lyon, France
| | - Arnaud Leleu
- Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation, AgroSup Dijon, INRA, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, CNRS, Dijon, France
| | - Emilie Favre
- Reference Center for Rare Diseases GénoPsy, CH Le Vinatier, UMR 5229, Université Lyon 1, CNRS, Lyon, France
| | - Nicolas Franck
- Centre ressource de réhabilitation psychosociale et de remédiation cognitive, CH Le Vinatier, Lyon et UMR 5229 (CNRS and Université Lyon), Lyon, France
| | - Caroline Demily
- Reference Center for Rare Diseases GénoPsy, CH Le Vinatier, UMR 5229, Université Lyon 1, CNRS, Lyon, France
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Campos R, Martínez-Castilla P, Sotillo M. False belief attribution in children with Williams syndrome: the answer is in the emotion. JOURNAL OF INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY RESEARCH : JIDR 2017; 61:1003-1010. [PMID: 28809068 DOI: 10.1111/jir.12404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2015] [Revised: 04/25/2017] [Accepted: 07/11/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Individuals with Williams syndrome (WS) show difficulties in attributing false beliefs, whereas they are better at attributing emotions. This study examines whether being asked about the emotion linked to a false belief, instead of explicitly about the belief, facilitates performance on theory of mind (ToM) tasks. METHOD Thirty children with WS and 90 typically developing children, who were individually matched on mental age (50-112 months), were administered six explicit (i.e. questions on belief) and six implicit (i.e. questions on emotion) trials of false belief tasks. RESULTS Theory of mind competences were related to cognitive development. Children with WS performed comparably to typically developing children on the emotion questions. CONCLUSION Correct answers to questions on emotion reveal an implicit understanding of false belief. The Representational redescription process could be impaired in the domain of ToM in this population. This finding has relevant implications for the design of supports aiming to optimise the development of ToM competences in individuals with WS.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Campos
- Basic Psychology, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - P Martínez-Castilla
- Developmental and Educational Psychology, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Madrid, Spain
| | - M Sotillo
- Basic Psychology, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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Crawford H, Moss J, Oliver C, Riby D. Differential effects of anxiety and autism on social scene scanning in males with fragile X syndrome. J Neurodev Disord 2017; 9:9. [PMID: 28946865 PMCID: PMC6389139 DOI: 10.1186/s11689-017-9189-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2016] [Accepted: 02/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Existing literature draws links between social attention and socio-behavioural profiles in neurodevelopmental disorders. Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is associated with a known socio-behavioural phenotype of social anxiety and social communication difficulties alongside high social motivation. However, studies investigating social attention in males with FXS are scarce. Using eye tracking, this study investigates social attention and its relationship with both anxiety and autism symptomatology in males with FXS. METHODS We compared dwell times to the background, body, and face regions of naturalistic social scenes in 11 males with FXS (M age = 26.29) and 11 typically developing (TD) children who were matched on gender and receptive language ability (M age = 6.28). Using informant-report measures, we then investigated the relationships between social scene scanning and anxiety, and social scene scanning and social communicative impairments. RESULTS Males with FXS did not differ to TD children on overall dwell time to the background, body, or face regions of the naturalistic social scenes. Whilst males with FXS displayed developmentally 'typical' social attention, increased looking at faces was associated with both heightened anxiety and fewer social communication impairments in this group. CONCLUSIONS These results offer novel insights into the mechanisms associated with social attention in FXS and provide evidence to suggest that anxiety and autism symptomatology, which are both heightened in FXS, have differential effects on social attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayley Crawford
- Centre for Research in Psychology, Behaviour and Achievement, Coventry University, Coventry, CV1 5FB UK
- Cerebra Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, B15 2TT UK
| | - Joanna Moss
- Cerebra Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, B15 2TT UK
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, 17 Queen Square, London, WC1N 3AR UK
| | - Chris Oliver
- Cerebra Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, B15 2TT UK
| | - Deborah Riby
- Department of Psychology, Durham University, Durham, DH1 3LE UK
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Nonverbal components of Theory of Mind in typical and atypical development. Infant Behav Dev 2017; 48:54-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.infbeh.2016.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2015] [Revised: 11/01/2016] [Accepted: 11/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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Morel A, Demily C. Cognition sociale dans les troubles neuro-génétiques de l’enfant : revue de la littérature. Arch Pediatr 2017; 24:757-765. [DOI: 10.1016/j.arcped.2017.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2016] [Revised: 01/15/2017] [Accepted: 05/11/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Vivanti G, Hocking DR, Fanning P, Dissanayake C. Verbal labels increase the salience of novel objects for preschoolers with typical development and Williams syndrome, but not in autism. J Neurodev Disord 2017; 8:46. [PMID: 28050217 PMCID: PMC5203722 DOI: 10.1186/s11689-016-9180-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2016] [Accepted: 11/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Early research has documented that young children show an increased interest toward objects that are verbally labeled by an adult, compared to objects that are presented without a label. It is unclear whether the same phenomenon occurs in neurodevelopmental disorders affecting social development, such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and Williams syndrome (WS). METHODS The present study used a novel eye-tracking paradigm to determine whether hearing a verbal label increases the salience of novel objects in 35 preschoolers with ASD, 18 preschoolers with WS, and 20 typically developing peers. RESULTS We found that typically developing children and those with WS, but not those with ASD, spent significantly more time looking at objects that are verbally labeled by an adult, compared to objects that are presented without a label. CONCLUSIONS In children without ASD, information accompanied by the speaker's verbal label is accorded a "special status," and it is more likely to be attended to. In contrast, children with ASD do not appear to attribute a special salience to labeled objects compared to non-labeled objects. This result is consistent with the notion that reduced responsivity to pedagogical cues hinders social learning in young children with ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giacomo Vivanti
- A.J. Drexel Autism Institute, Drexel University, 3020 Market Street, Suite 560, Philadelphia, PA 19104-3734 USA ; Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre, School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Darren R Hocking
- Developmental Neuromotor and Cognition Lab, School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Peter Fanning
- Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre, School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Cheryl Dissanayake
- Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre, School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia
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Hirai M, Muramatsu Y, Mizuno S, Kurahashi N, Kurahashi H, Nakamura M. Typical visual search performance and atypical gaze behaviors in response to faces in Williams syndrome. J Neurodev Disord 2016; 8:38. [PMID: 27795743 PMCID: PMC5075985 DOI: 10.1186/s11689-016-9172-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2015] [Accepted: 10/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Evidence indicates that individuals with Williams syndrome (WS) exhibit atypical attentional characteristics when viewing faces. However, the dynamics of visual attention captured by faces remain unclear, especially when explicit attentional forces are present. To clarify this, we introduced a visual search paradigm and assessed how the relative strength of visual attention captured by a face and explicit attentional control changes as search progresses. METHODS Participants (WS and controls) searched for a target (butterfly) within an array of distractors, which sometimes contained an upright face. We analyzed reaction time and location of the first fixation-which reflect the attentional profile at the initial stage-and fixation durations. These features represent aspects of attention at later stages of visual search. The strength of visual attention captured by faces and explicit attentional control (toward the butterfly) was characterized by the frequency of first fixations on a face or butterfly and on the duration of face or butterfly fixations. RESULTS Although reaction time was longer in all groups when faces were present, and visual attention was not dominated by faces in any group during the initial stages of the search, when faces were present, attention to faces dominated in the WS group during the later search stages. Furthermore, for the WS group, reaction time correlated with eye-movement measures at different stages of searching such that longer reaction times were associated with longer face-fixations, specifically at the initial stage of searching. Moreover, longer reaction times were associated with longer face-fixations at the later stages of searching, while shorter reaction times were associated with longer butterfly fixations. CONCLUSIONS The relative strength of attention captured by faces in people with WS is not observed at the initial stage of searching but becomes dominant as the search progresses. Furthermore, although behavioral responses are associated with some aspects of eye movements, they are not as sensitive as eye-movement measurements themselves at detecting atypical attentional characteristics in people with WS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masahiro Hirai
- Institute for Developmental Research, Aichi Human Service Center, 713-8 Kagiya-cho, Kasugai, Aichi 480-0392 Japan ; Present address: Center for Development of Advanced Medical Technology, Jichi Medical University, 3311-1 Yakushiji, Shimotsuke, Tochigi 392-0498 Japan
| | - Yukako Muramatsu
- Institute for Developmental Research, Aichi Human Service Center, 713-8 Kagiya-cho, Kasugai, Aichi 480-0392 Japan
| | - Seiji Mizuno
- Department of Pediatrics, Central Hospital, Aichi Human Service Center, 713-8 Kagiya-cho, Kasugai, Aichi 480-0392 Japan
| | - Naoko Kurahashi
- Department of Pediatrics, Central Hospital, Aichi Human Service Center, 713-8 Kagiya-cho, Kasugai, Aichi 480-0392 Japan
| | - Hirokazu Kurahashi
- Department of Pediatrics, Central Hospital, Aichi Human Service Center, 713-8 Kagiya-cho, Kasugai, Aichi 480-0392 Japan
| | - Miho Nakamura
- Institute for Developmental Research, Aichi Human Service Center, 713-8 Kagiya-cho, Kasugai, Aichi 480-0392 Japan
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Van Herwegen J. Williams syndrome and its cognitive profile: the importance of eye movements. Psychol Res Behav Manag 2015; 8:143-51. [PMID: 26082669 PMCID: PMC4461016 DOI: 10.2147/prbm.s63474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
People with Williams syndrome (WS), a rare neurodevelopmental disorder that is caused by a deletion on the long arm of chromosome 7, often show an uneven cognitive profile with participants performing better on language and face recognition tasks, in contrast to visuospatial and number tasks. Recent studies have shown that this specific cognitive profile in WS is a result of atypical developmental processes that interact with and affect brain development from infancy onward. Using examples from language, face processing, number, and visuospatial studies, this review evaluates current evidence from eye-tracking and developmental studies and argues that domain general processes, such as the ability to plan or execute saccades, influence the development of these domain-specific outcomes. Although more research on eye movements in WS is required, the importance of eye movements for cognitive development suggests a possible intervention pathway to improve cognitive abilities in this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jo Van Herwegen
- Department of Psychology, Kingston University London, Surrey, UK
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Järvinen A, Ng R, Crivelli D, Arnold AJ, Woo-VonHoogenstyn N, Bellugi U. Relations between social-perceptual ability in multi- and unisensory contexts, autonomic reactivity, and social functioning in individuals with Williams syndrome. Neuropsychologia 2015; 73:127-40. [PMID: 26002754 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.04.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2014] [Revised: 04/26/2015] [Accepted: 04/30/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Compromised social-perceptual ability has been proposed to contribute to social dysfunction in neurodevelopmental disorders. While such impairments have been identified in Williams syndrome (WS), little is known about emotion processing in auditory and multisensory contexts. Employing a multidimensional approach, individuals with WS and typical development (TD) were tested for emotion identification across fearful, happy, and angry multisensory and unisensory face and voice stimuli. Autonomic responses were monitored in response to unimodal emotion. The WS group was administered an inventory of social functioning. Behaviorally, individuals with WS relative to TD demonstrated impaired processing of unimodal vocalizations and emotionally incongruent audiovisual compounds, reflecting a generalized deficit in social-auditory processing in WS. The TD group outperformed their counterparts with WS in identifying negative (fearful and angry) emotion, with similar between-group performance with happy stimuli. Mirroring this pattern, electrodermal activity (EDA) responses to the emotional content of the stimuli indicated that whereas those with WS showed the highest arousal to happy, and lowest arousal to fearful stimuli, the TD participants demonstrated the contrasting pattern. In WS, more normal social functioning was related to higher autonomic arousal to facial expressions. Implications for underlying neural architecture and emotional functions are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Järvinen
- Laboratory for Cognitive Neuroscience, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA.
| | - Rowena Ng
- Laboratory for Cognitive Neuroscience, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA; Institute of Child Development, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, MN, USA
| | - Davide Crivelli
- Department of Psychology, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Milan, Italy
| | - Andrew J Arnold
- Laboratory for Cognitive Neuroscience, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | | | - Ursula Bellugi
- Laboratory for Cognitive Neuroscience, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
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Giuliani F, Schenk F. Vision, spatial cognition and intellectual disability. RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 2015; 37:202-208. [PMID: 25506655 DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2014.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2014] [Revised: 11/21/2014] [Accepted: 11/25/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Vision is the most synthetic sensory channel and it provides specific information about the relative position of distant landmarks during visual exploration. In this paper we propose that visual exploration, as assessed by the recording of eye movements, offers an original method to analyze spatial cognition and to reveal alternative adaptation strategies in people with intellectual disabilities (ID). Our general assumption is that eye movement exploration may simultaneously reveal whether, why, and how, compensatory strategies point to specific difficulties related to neurological symptoms. An understanding of these strategies will also help in the development of optimal rehabilitation procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabienne Giuliani
- Consultation of Liaison Psychiatry for Intellectual Disability, Community Psychiatry Service, Department of Psychiatry, University Hospital Center and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Françoise Schenk
- Institute of Psychology, University of Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland; Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience, Site de Cery, 1008 Prilly, Switzerland
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Lough E, Flynn E, Riby DM. Mapping Real-World to Online Vulnerability in Young People with Developmental Disorders: Illustrations from Autism and Williams Syndrome. REVIEW JOURNAL OF AUTISM AND DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s40489-014-0029-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Revealing variations in perception of mental states from dynamic facial expressions: a cautionary note. PLoS One 2014; 9:e84395. [PMID: 24416226 PMCID: PMC3885558 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0084395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2013] [Accepted: 11/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Although a great deal of research has been conducted on the recognition of basic facial emotions (e.g., anger, happiness, sadness), much less research has been carried out on the more subtle facial expressions of an individual's mental state (e.g., anxiety, disinterest, relief). Of particular concern is that these mental state expressions provide a crucial source of communication in everyday life but little is known about the accuracy with which natural dynamic facial expressions of mental states are identified and, in particular, the variability in mental state perception that is produced. Here we report the findings of two studies that investigated the accuracy and variability with which dynamic facial expressions of mental states were identified by participants. Both studies used stimuli carefully constructed using procedures adopted in previous research, and free-report (Study 1) and forced-choice (Study 2) measures of response accuracy and variability. The findings of both studies showed levels of response accuracy that were accompanied by substantial variation in the labels assigned by observers to each mental state. Thus, when mental states are identified from facial expressions in experiments, the identities attached to these expressions appear to vary considerably across individuals. This variability raises important issues for understanding the identification of mental states in everyday situations and for the use of responses in facial expression research.
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Kirk HE, Hocking DR, Riby DM, Cornish KM. Linking social behaviour and anxiety to attention to emotional faces in Williams syndrome. RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 2013; 34:4608-4616. [PMID: 24210355 DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2013.09.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2013] [Revised: 09/25/2013] [Accepted: 09/25/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The neurodevelopmental disorder Williams syndrome (WS) has been associated with a social phenotype of hypersociability, non-social anxiety and an unusual attraction to faces. The current study uses eye tracking to explore attention allocation to emotionally expressive faces. Eye gaze and behavioural measures of anxiety and social reciprocity were investigated in adolescents and adults with WS when compared to typically developing individuals of comparable verbal mental age (VMA) and chronological age (CA). Results showed significant associations between high levels of behavioural anxiety and attention allocation away from the eye regions of threatening facial expressions in WS. The results challenge early claims of a unique attraction to the eyes in WS and suggest that individual differences in anxiety may mediate the allocation of attention to faces in WS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah E Kirk
- School of Psychology and Psychiatry, Monash University, Australia.
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