Dynamics: the missing link between structure and function of the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase?

Induced intra- and intermolecular template switching as a therapeutic mechanism against RNA viruses

Viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases (RdRps) are a target for broad-spectrum antiviral therapeutic agents. Recently, we demonstrated that incorporation of the T-1106 triphosphate, a pyrazine-carboxamide ribonucleotide, into nascent RNA increases pausing and backtracking by the poliovirus RdRp. Here, by monitoring enterovirus A-71 RdRp dynamics during RNA synthesis using magnetic tweezers, we identify the "backtracked" state as an intermediate used by the RdRp for copy-back RNA synthesis and homologous recombination. Cell-based assays and RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) experiments further demonstrate that the pyrazine-carboxamide ribonucleotide stimulates these processes during infection. These results suggest that pyrazine-carboxamide ribonucleotides do not induce lethal mutagenesis or chain termination but function by promoting template switching and formation of defective viral genomes. We conclude that RdRp-catalyzed intra- and intermolecular template switching can be induced by pyrazine-carboxamide ribonucleotides, defining an additional mechanistic class of antiviral ribonucleotides with potential for broad-spectrum activity.

Picornaviral polymerase domain exchanges reveal a modular basis for distinct biochemical activities of viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases

Picornaviral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases (RdRPs) have low replication fidelity that is essential for viral fitness and evolution. Their global fold consists of the classical "cupped right hand" structure with palm, fingers, and thumb domains, and these RdRPs also possess a unique contact between the fingers and thumb domains. This interaction restricts movements of the fingers, and RdRPs use a subtle conformational change within the palm domain to close their active sites for catalysis. We have previously shown that this core RdRP structure and mechanism provide a platform for polymerases to fine-tune replication rates and fidelity to optimize virus fitness. Here, we further elucidated the structural basis for differences in replication rates and fidelity among different viruses by generating chimeric RdRPs from poliovirus and coxsackievirus B3. We designed these chimeric polymerases by exchanging the fingers, pinky finger, or thumb domains. The results of biochemical, rapid-quench, and stopped-flow assays revealed that differences in biochemical activity map to individual modular domains of this polymerase. We found that the pinky finger subdomain is a major regulator of initiation and that the palm domain is the major determinant of catalytic rate and nucleotide discrimination. We further noted that thumb domain interactions with product RNA regulate translocation and that the palm and thumb domains coordinately control elongation complex stability. Several RdRP chimeras supported the growth of infectious poliovirus, providing insights into enterovirus species-specific protein-protein interactions required for virus replication.

Rational Control of Poliovirus RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase Fidelity by Modulating Motif-D Loop Conformational Dynamics

The conserved structural motif D is an important determinant of the speed and fidelity of viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases (RdRps). Structural and computational studies have suggested that conformational changes in the motif-D loop that help to reposition the catalytic lysine represent critical steps in nucleotide selection and incorporation. Conformations of the motif-D loop in the poliovirus RdRp are likely controlled in part by noncovalent interactions involving the motif-D residue Glu364. This residue swivels between making interactions with Lys228 and Asn370 to stabilize the open and closed loop conformations, respectively. We show here that we can rationally control the motif-D loop conformation by breaking these interactions. The K228A variant favors a more active closed conformation, leading to increased nucleotide incorporation rates and decreased nucleotide selectivity, and the N370A variant favors a less active open conformation, leading to decreased nucleotide incorporation rates and increased nucleotide selectivity. Similar competing interactions likely control nucleotide incorporation rates and fidelity in other viral RdRps. Rational engineering of these interactions may be important in the generation of live, attenuated vaccine strains, considering the established relationships between RdRp function and viral pathogenesis.

A computational approach for predicting off-target toxicity of antiviral ribonucleoside analogues to mitochondrial RNA polymerase

In the development of antiviral drugs that target viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases, off-target toxicity caused by the inhibition of the human mitochondrial RNA polymerase (POLRMT) is a major liability. Therefore, it is essential that all new ribonucleoside analogue drugs be accurately screened for POLRMT inhibition. A computational tool that can accurately predict NTP binding to POLRMT could assist in evaluating any potential toxicity and in designing possible salvaging strategies. Using the available crystal structure of POLRMT bound to an RNA transcript, here we created a model of POLRMT with an NTP molecule bound in the active site. Furthermore, we implemented a computational screening procedure that determines the relative binding free energy of an NTP analogue to POLRMT by free energy perturbation (FEP), i.e. a simulation in which the natural NTP molecule is slowly transformed into the analogue and back. In each direction, the transformation was performed over 40 ns of simulation on our IBM Blue Gene Q supercomputer. This procedure was validated across a panel of drugs for which experimental dissociation constants were available, showing that NTP relative binding free energies could be predicted to within 0.97 kcal/mol of the experimental values on average. These results demonstrate for the first time that free-energy simulation can be a useful tool for predicting binding affinities of NTP analogues to a polymerase. We expect that our model, together with similar models of viral polymerases, will be very useful in the screening and future design of NTP inhibitors of viral polymerases that have no mitochondrial toxicity.

Effects of mutations on active site conformation and dynamics of RNA-dependent RNA polymerase from Coxsackievirus B3

Recent crystal structures of RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (3D^pol) from Coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) revealed that a tyrosine mutation at Phe364 (F364Y) resulted in structures with open active site whereas a hydrophobic mutation at Phe364 (F364A) led to conformations with closed active site. Besides, the crystal structures showed that the F364W mutation had no preference between the open and closed active sites, similar to wild-type. In this paper, we present a molecular dynamics (MD) study on CVB3 3D^pol in order to address some important questions raised by experiments. First, MD simulations of F364Y and F364A were carried out to explore how these mutations at Phe364 influence active site dynamics and conformations. Second, MD simulations of wild-type and mutants were performed to discover the connection between active site dynamics and polymerase function. MD simulations reveal that the effect of mutations on active site dynamics is associated with the interaction between the structural motifs A and D in CVB3 3D^pol. Interestingly, we discover that the active site state is influenced by the formation of a hydrogen bond between backbone atoms of Ala231 (in motif A) and Ala358 (in motif D), which has never been revealed before.

Norovirus RNA-dependent RNA polymerase: A computational study of metal-binding preferences

Norovirus (NV) RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP) is essential for replicating the genome of the virus, which makes this enzyme a key target for the development of antiviral agents against NV gastroenteritis. In this work, a complex of NV RdRP bound to manganese ions and an RNA primer-template duplex was investigated using X-ray crystallography and hybrid quantum chemical/molecular mechanical simulations. Experimentally, the complex crystallized in a tetragonal crystal form. The nature of the primer/template duplex binding in the resulting structure indicates that the complex is a closed back-tracked state of the enzyme, in which the 3'-end of the primer occupies the position expected for the post-incorporated nucleotide before translocation. Computationally, it is found that the complex can accept a range of divalent metal cations without marked distortions in the active site structure. The highest binding energy is for copper, followed closely by manganese and iron, and then by zinc, nickel, and cobalt. Proteins 2017; 85:1435-1445. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Cystoviral RNA-directed RNA polymerases: Regulation of RNA synthesis on multiple time and length scales

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Role of the RNA polymerase in the cystoviral life-cycle.

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Spatio-temporal regulation of RNA synthesis in cystoviruses.

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Emerging role of conformational dynamics in polymerase function.

P2, an RNA-directed RNA polymerase (RdRP), is encoded on the largest of the three segments of the double-stranded RNA genome of cystoviruses. P2 performs the dual tasks of replication and transcription de novo on single-stranded RNA templates, and plays a critical role in the viral life-cycle. Work over the last few decades has yielded a wealth of biochemical and structural information on the functional regulation of P2, on its role in the spatiotemporal regulation of RNA synthesis and its variability across the Cystoviridae family. These range from atomic resolution snapshots of P2 trapped in functionally significant states, in complex with catalytic/structural metal ions, polynucleotide templates and substrate nucleoside triphosphates, to P2 in the context of viral capsids providing structural insight into the assembly of supramolecular complexes and regulatory interactions therein. They include in vitro biochemical studies using P2 purified to homogeneity and in vivo studies utilizing infectious core particles. Recent advances in experimental techniques have also allowed access to the temporal dimension and enabled the characterization of dynamics of P2 on the sub-nanosecond to millisecond timescale through measurements of nuclear spin relaxation in solution and single molecule studies of transcription from seconds to minutes. Below we summarize the most significant results that provide critical insight into the role of P2 in regulating RNA synthesis in cystoviruses.

Long-Range Communication between Different Functional Sites in the Picornaviral 3C Protein

The 3C protein is a master regulator of the picornaviral infection cycle, responsible for both cleaving viral and host proteins, and interacting with genomic RNA replication elements. Here we use nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and molecular dynamics simulations to show that 3C is conformationally dynamic across multiple timescales. Binding of peptide and RNA lead to structural dynamics changes at both the protease active site and the RNA-binding site, consistent with these sites being dynamically coupled. Indeed, binding of RNA influences protease activity, and likewise, interactions at the active site affect RNA binding. We propose that RNA and peptide binding re-shapes the conformational energy landscape of 3C to regulate subsequent functions, including formation of complexes with other viral proteins. The observed channeling of the 3C energy landscape may be important for regulation of the viral infection cycle.

Molecular simulations to delineate functional conformational transitions in the HCV polymerase

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a global health concern for which there is no vaccine available. The HCV polymerase is responsible for the critical function of replicating the RNA genome of the virus. Transitions between at least two conformations (open and closed) are necessary to allow the enzyme to replicate RNA. In this study, molecular dynamic simulations were initiated from multiple crystal structures to understand the free energy landscape (FEL) explored by the enzyme as it interconverts between these conformations. Our studies reveal the location of distinct states within the FEL as well as the molecular interactions associated with these states. Specific hydrogen bonds appear to play a key role in modulating conformational transitions. This knowledge is essential to elucidate the role of these conformations in replication and may also be valuable in understanding the basis by which this enzyme is inhibited by small molecules. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

An all-atom, active site exploration of antiviral drugs that target Flaviviridae polymerases

Natural 2'-modified nucleosides are the most widely used antiviral therapy. In their triphosphorylated form, also known as nucleotide analogues, they target the active site of viral polymerases. Viral polymerases have an overall right-handed structure that includes the palm, fingers and thumb domains. These domains are further subdivided into structurally conserved motifs A-G, common to all viral polymerases. The structural motifs encapsulate the allosteric/initiation (N1) and orthosteric/catalytic (N2) nucleotide-binding sites. The current study investigated how nucleotide analogues explore the N2 site of viral polymerases from three genera of the family Flaviviridae using a stochastic, biophysical, Metropolis Monte Carlo-based software. The biophysical simulations showed a statistical distinction in nucleotide-binding energy and exploration between phylogenetically related viral polymerases. This distinction is clearly demonstrated by the respective analogue contacts made with conserved viral polymerase residues, the heterogeneous dynamics of structural motifs, and the orientation of the nucleotide analogues within the N2 site. Being able to simulate what occurs within viral-polymerase-binding sites can prove useful in rational drug designs against viruses.

Fidelity Variants and RNA Quasispecies

By now, it is well established that the error rate of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) that replicates RNA virus genomes is a primary driver of the mutation frequencies observed in RNA virus populations-the basis for the RNA quasispecies. Over the last 10 years, a considerable amount of work has uncovered the molecular determinants of replication fidelity in this enzyme. The isolation of high- and low-fidelity variants for several RNA viruses, in an expanding number of viral families, provides evidence that nature has optimized the fidelity to facilitate genetic diversity and adaptation, while maintaining genetic integrity and infectivity. This chapter will provide an overview of what fidelity variants tell us about RNA virus biology and how they may be used in antiviral approaches.

Identification of two essential aspartates for polymerase activity in parainfluenza virus L protein by a minireplicon system expressing secretory luciferase

Gene expression of nonsegmented negative-strand RNA viruses (nsNSVs) such as parainfluenza viruses requires the RNA synthesis activity of their polymerase L protein; however, the detailed mechanism of this process is poorly understood. In this study, a parainfluenza minireplicon assay expressing secretory Gaussia luciferase (Gluc) was established to analyze large protein (L) activity. Measurement of Gluc expression in the culture medium of cells transfected with the minigenome and viral polymerase components enabled quick and concise calculation of L activity. By comparing the amino acid sequences in conserved region III (CRIII), a putative polymerase-active domain of the L protein, two strictly conserved aspartates were identified in all families of nsNSV. A series of L mutants from human parainfluenza virus type 2 and parainfluenza virus type 5 showed that these aspartates are necessary for reporter gene expression. It was also confirmed that these aspartates are important for the production of viral mRNA and antigenome cRNA, but not for a polymerase-complex formation. These findings suggest that these two aspartates are key players in the nucleotidyl transfer reaction using two metal ions.

Bridging the Missing Link between Structure and Fidelity of the RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase from Poliovirus through Free Energy Simulations

RNA-dependent RNA polymerases (RdRps) are enzymes catalyzing RNA replication from a RNA template. Active-site closure in RdRps, normally induced by correct nucleotide triphosphate (NTP) binding, is a prerequisite for the cycle of nucleotide incorporation. So, a complete understanding of polymerase function (in particular polymerase fidelity) of a RdRp requires more complete knowledge of active-site closure in the RdRp. In this work, based on solved crystal structures, we have built different models for the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase from poliovirus (termed PV 3D(pol)). Through MD simulations and free energy calculations of these PV 3D(pol) models, we have revealed the dynamic correlation between motif A and motif D and between motif A and incoming NTP, have deepened our understanding of polymerase fidelity from dynamic aspects, and have provided an explanation to the puzzle that arises from different observations based on kinetic studies and structural data.

Conformational Ensemble of the Poliovirus 3CD Precursor Observed by MD Simulations and Confirmed by SAXS: A Strategy to Expand the Viral Proteome?

The genomes of RNA viruses are relatively small. To overcome the small-size limitation, RNA viruses assign distinct functions to the processed viral proteins and their precursors. This is exemplified by poliovirus 3CD protein. 3C protein is a protease and RNA-binding protein. 3D protein is an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). 3CD exhibits unique protease and RNA-binding activities relative to 3C and is devoid of RdRp activity. The origin of these differences is unclear, since crystal structure of 3CD revealed "beads-on-a-string" structure with no significant structural differences compared to the fully processed proteins. We performed molecular dynamics (MD) simulations on 3CD to investigate its conformational dynamics. A compact conformation of 3CD was observed that was substantially different from that shown crystallographically. This new conformation explained the unique properties of 3CD relative to the individual proteins. Interestingly, simulations of mutant 3CD showed altered interface. Additionally, accelerated MD simulations uncovered a conformational ensemble of 3CD. When we elucidated the 3CD conformations in solution using small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) experiments a range of conformations from extended to compact was revealed, validating the MD simulations. The existence of conformational ensemble of 3CD could be viewed as a way to expand the poliovirus proteome, an observation that may extend to other viruses.

Structural Analysis of Monomeric RNA-Dependent Polymerases: Evolutionary and Therapeutic Implications

The crystal structures of monomeric RNA-dependent RNA polymerases and reverse transcriptases of more than 20 different viruses are available in the Protein Data Bank. They all share the characteristic right-hand shape of DNA- and RNA polymerases formed by the fingers, palm and thumb subdomains, and, in many cases, “fingertips” that extend from the fingers towards the thumb subdomain, giving the viral enzyme a closed right-hand appearance. Six conserved structural motifs that contain key residues for the proper functioning of the enzyme have been identified in all these RNA-dependent polymerases. These enzymes share a two divalent metal-ion mechanism of polymerization in which two conserved aspartate residues coordinate the interactions with the metal ions to catalyze the nucleotidyl transfer reaction. The recent availability of crystal structures of polymerases of the Orthomyxoviridae and Bunyaviridae families allowed us to make pairwise comparisons of the tertiary structures of polymerases belonging to the four main RNA viral groups, which has led to a phylogenetic tree in which single-stranded negative RNA viral polymerases have been included for the first time. This has also allowed us to use a homology-based structural prediction approach to develop a general three-dimensional model of the Ebola virus RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Our model includes several of the conserved structural motifs and residues described in other viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases that define the catalytic and highly conserved palm subdomain, as well as portions of the fingers and thumb subdomains. The results presented here help to understand the current use and apparent success of antivirals, i.e. Brincidofovir, Lamivudine and Favipiravir, originally aimed at other types of polymerases, to counteract the Ebola virus infection.

Methyl Relaxation Measurements Reveal Patterns of Fast Dynamics in a Viral RNA-Directed RNA Polymerase

Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations combined with biochemical studies have suggested the presence of long-range networks of functionally relevant conformational flexibility on the nanosecond time scale in single-subunit RNA polymerases in many RNA viruses. However, experimental verification of these dynamics at a sufficient level of detail has been lacking. Here we describe the fast, picosecond to nanosecond dynamics of an archetypal viral RNA-directed RNA polymerase (RdRp), the 75 kDa P2 protein from cystovirus ϕ12, using analyses of (1)H-(1)H dipole-dipole cross-correlated relaxation at the methyl positions of Ile (δ1), Leu, Val, and Met residues. Our results, which represent the most detailed experimental characterization of fast dynamics in a viral RdRp until date, reveal a highly connected dynamic network as predicted by MD simulations of related systems. Our results suggest that the entry portals for template RNA and substrate NTPs are relatively disordered, while conserved motifs involved in metal binding, nucleotide selection, and catalysis display greater rigidity. Perturbations at the active site through metal binding or functional mutation affect dynamics not only in the immediate vicinity but also at remote regions. Comparison with the limited experimental and extensive functional and in silico results available for homologous systems suggests conservation of the overall pattern of dynamics in viral RdRps.

Functional insights from molecular modeling, docking, and dynamics study of a cypoviral RNA dependent RNA polymerase

Antheraea mylitta cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus (AmCPV) contains 11 double stranded RNA genome segments and infects tasar silkworm A. mylitta. RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) is reported as a key enzyme responsible for propagation of the virus in the host cell but its structure function relationship still remains elusive. Here a computational approach has been taken to compare sequence and secondary structure of AmCPV RdRp with other viral RdRps to identify consensus motifs. Then a reliable pairwise sequence alignment of AmCPV RdRp with its closest sequence structure homologue λ3 RdRp is done to predict three dimensional structure of AmCPV RdRp. After comparing with other structurally known viral RdRps, important sequence and/or structural features involved in substrate entry or binding, polymerase reaction and the product release events have been identified. A conserved RNA pentanucleotide (5'-AGAGC-3') at the 3'-end of virus genome is predicted as cis-acting signal for RNA synthesis and its docking and simulation study along with the model of AmCPV RdRp has allowed to predict mode of template binding by the viral polymerase. It is found that template RNA enters into the catalytic center through nine sequence-independent and two sequence-dependent interactions with the specific amino acid residues. However, number of sequence dependent interactions remains almost same during 10 nano-second simulation time while total number of interactions decreases. Further, docking of N(7)-methyl-GpppG (mRNA cap) on the model as well as prediction of RNA secondary structure has shown the template entry process in the active site. These findings have led to postulate the mechanism of RNA-dependent RNA polymerization process by AmCPV RdRp. To our knowledge, this is the first report to evaluate structure function relationship of a cypoviral RdRp.

Using the Hepatitis C Virus RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase as a Model to Understand Viral Polymerase Structure, Function and Dynamics

Viral polymerases replicate and transcribe the genomes of several viruses of global health concern such as Hepatitis C virus (HCV), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and Ebola virus. For this reason they are key targets for therapies to treat viral infections. Although there is little sequence similarity across the different types of viral polymerases, all of them present a right-hand shape and certain structural motifs that are highly conserved. These features allow their functional properties to be compared, with the goal of broadly applying the knowledge acquired from studying specific viral polymerases to other viral polymerases about which less is known. Here we review the structural and functional properties of the HCV RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (NS5B) in order to understand the fundamental processes underlying the replication of viral genomes. We discuss recent insights into the process by which RNA replication occurs in NS5B as well as the role that conformational changes play in this process.

Sequence-Specific Fidelity Alterations Associated with West Nile Virus Attenuation in Mosquitoes

High rates of error-prone replication result in the rapid accumulation of genetic diversity of RNA viruses. Recent studies suggest that mutation rates are selected for optimal viral fitness and that modest variations in replicase fidelity may be associated with viral attenuation. Arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) are unique in their requirement for host cycling and may necessitate substantial genetic and phenotypic plasticity. In order to more thoroughly investigate the correlates, mechanisms and consequences of arbovirus fidelity, we selected fidelity variants of West Nile virus (WNV; Flaviviridae, Flavivirus) utilizing selection in the presence of a mutagen. We identified two mutations in the WNV RNA-dependent RNA polymerase associated with increased fidelity, V793I and G806R, and a single mutation in the WNV methyltransferase, T248I, associated with decreased fidelity. Both deep-sequencing and in vitro biochemical assays confirmed strain-specific differences in both fidelity and mutational bias. WNV fidelity variants demonstrated host-specific alterations to replicative fitness in vitro, with modest attenuation in mosquito but not vertebrate cell culture. Experimental infections of colonized and field populations of Cx. quinquefaciatus demonstrated that WNV fidelity alterations are associated with a significantly impaired capacity to establish viable infections in mosquitoes. Taken together, these studies (i) demonstrate the importance of allosteric interactions in regulating mutation rates, (ii) establish that mutational spectra can be both sequence and strain-dependent, and (iii) display the profound phenotypic consequences associated with altered replication complex function of flaviviruses.

West Nile virus (WNV) is the most geographically widespread arthropod-borne virus (arbovirus) in the world. Like most arboviruses, WNV is a RNA virus which is highly mutable and exists in nature as genetically diverse mutant swarms. Although many recent studies have investigated the relationship between virus mutation rate and viral fitness, this had not previously been determined for WNV or other flaviviruses. We identified WNV mutations associated with variation in mutation rate using cell culture passage in the presence of a mutagen and engineered these mutations into an infectious WNV clone in order to investigate the causes and consequences of altered fidelity. Our results demonstrate that interactions among proteins which comprise the WNV replication complex can significantly alter both the extent and types of mutations that occur. In addition, we show that both increasing and decreasing WNV fidelity has host-specific effects on replication in cell culture and is associated with nearly complete ablation of WNV infection in mosquito vectors. These results have significant implications for our understanding of arbovirus evolution, replication complex function and arboviral fitness in mosquitoes, and identify important targets to study the determinants and mechanisms of vector competence and arbovirus fidelity.

Structure of a backtracked state reveals conformational changes similar to the state following nucleotide incorporation in human norovirus polymerase

The RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP) from norovirus (NV) genogroup II has previously been crystallized as an apoenzyme (APO1) in multiple crystal forms, as well as as a pre-incorporation ternary complex (PRE1) bound to Mn(2+), various nucleoside triphosphates and an RNA primer-template duplex in an orthorhombic crystal form. When crystallized under near-identical conditions with a slightly different RNA primer/template duplex, however, the enzyme-RNA complex forms tetragonal crystals (anisotropic data, dmin ≃ 1.9 Å) containing a complex with the primer/template bound in a backtracked state (BACK1) similar to a post-incorporation complex (POST1) in a step of the enzymatic cycle immediately following nucleotidyl transfer. The BACK1 conformation shows that the terminal nucleotide of the primer binds in a manner similar to the nucleoside triphosphate seen in the PRE1 complex, even though the terminal two phosphoryl groups in the triphosphate moiety are absent and a covalent bond is present between the α-phosphoryl group of the terminal nucleotide and the 3'-oxygen of the penultimate nucleotide residue. The two manganese ions bound at the active site coordinate to conserved Asp residues and the bridging phosphoryl group of the terminal nucleotide. Surprisingly, the conformation of the thumb domain in BACK1 resembles the open APO1 state more than the closed conformation seen in PRE1. The BACK1 complex thus reveals a hybrid state in which the active site is closed while the thumb domain is open. Comparison of the APO1, PRE1 and BACK1 structures of NV polymerase helps to reveal a more complete and complex pathway of conformational changes within a single RdRP enzyme system. These conformational changes lend insight into the mechanism of RNA translocation following nucleotidyl transfer and suggest novel approaches for the development of antiviral inhibitors.

Structural dynamics as a contributor to error-prone replication by an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase

RNA viruses encoding high- or low-fidelity RNA-dependent RNA polymerases (RdRp) are attenuated. The ability to predict residues of the RdRp required for faithful incorporation of nucleotides represents an essential step in any pipeline intended to exploit perturbed fidelity as the basis for rational design of vaccine candidates. We used x-ray crystallography, molecular dynamics simulations, NMR spectroscopy, and pre-steady-state kinetics to compare a mutator (H273R) RdRp from poliovirus to the wild-type (WT) enzyme. We show that the nucleotide-binding site toggles between the nucleotide binding-occluded and nucleotide binding-competent states. The conformational dynamics between these states were enhanced by binding to primed template RNA. For the WT, the occluded conformation was favored; for H273R, the competent conformation was favored. The resonance for Met-187 in our NMR spectra reported on the ability of the enzyme to check the correctness of the bound nucleotide. Kinetic experiments were consistent with the conformational dynamics contributing to the established pre-incorporation conformational change and fidelity checkpoint. For H273R, residues comprising the active site spent more time in the catalytically competent conformation and were more positively correlated than the WT. We propose that by linking the equilibrium between the binding-occluded and binding-competent conformations of the nucleotide-binding pocket and other active-site dynamics to the correctness of the bound nucleotide, faithful nucleotide incorporation is achieved. These studies underscore the need to apply multiple biophysical and biochemical approaches to the elucidation of the physical basis for polymerase fidelity.

Initiation of RNA synthesis by the hepatitis C virus RNA-dependent RNA polymerase is affected by the structure of the RNA template

The hepatitis C virus (HCV) RNA-dependent RNA polymerase NS5B is a central enzyme of the intracellular replication of the viral (+)RNA genome. Here, we studied the individual steps of NS5B-catalyzed RNA synthesis by a combination of biophysical methods, including real-time 1D ¹H NMR spectroscopy. NS5B was found to bind to a nonstructured and a structured RNA template in different modes. Following NTP binding and conversion to the catalysis-competent ternary complex, the polymerase revealed an improved affinity for the template. By monitoring the folding/unfolding of 3′(−)SL by ¹H NMR, the base pair at the stem’s edge was identified as the most stable component of the structure. ¹H NMR real-time analysis of NS5B-catalyzed RNA synthesis on 3′(−)SL showed that a pronounced lag phase preceded the processive polymerization reaction. The presence of the double-stranded stem with the edge base pair acting as the main energy barrier impaired RNA synthesis catalyzed by NS5B. Our observations suggest a crucial role of RNA-modulating factors in the HCV replication process.

Targeting structural dynamics of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase for anti-viral strategies

The RNA-dependent RNA polymerase is responsible for genome replication of RNA viruses. Nuclear magnetic resonance experiments and molecular dynamics simulations have indicated that efficient and faithful polymerase function requires highly coordinated internal protein motions. Interference with these motions, either through amino acid substitutions or small molecule binding, can disrupt polymerase and virus function. In particular, these studies have pointed toward highly conserved structural elements, like the motif-D active-site loop, that can be modified to generate polymerases with desired properties. Viruses encoding engineered polymerases might serve as live, attenuated vaccine strains. Further elucidation of polymerase structural dynamics will also provide new avenues for anti-viral drug design.

RNA virus population diversity, an optimum for maximal fitness and virulence

The ability of an RNA virus to exist as a population of genetically distinct variants permits the virus to overcome events during infections that would otherwise limit virus multiplication or drive the population to extinction. Viral genetic diversity is created by the ribonucleotide misincorporation frequency of the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). We have identified a poliovirus (PV) RdRp derivative (H273R) possessing a mutator phenotype. GMP misincorporation efficiency for H273R RdRp in vitro was increased by 2-3-fold that manifested in a 2-3-fold increase in the diversity of the H273R PV population in cells. Circular sequencing analysis indicated that some mutations were RdRp-independent. Consistent with the population genetics theory, H273R PV was driven to extinction more easily than WT in cell culture. Furthermore, we observed a substantial reduction in H273R PV virulence, measured as the ability to cause paralysis in the cPVR mouse model. Reduced virulence correlated with the inability of H273R PV to sustain replication in tissues/organs in which WT persists. Despite the attenuated phenotype, H273R PV was capable of replicating in mice to levels sufficient to induce a protective immune response, even when the infecting dose used was insufficient to elicit any visual signs of infection. We conclude that optimal RdRp fidelity is a virulence determinant that can be targeted for viral attenuation or antiviral therapies, and we suggest that the RdRp may not be the only source of mutations in a RNA virus genome.

Changes in protein domains outside the catalytic site of the bacteriophage Qβ replicase reduce the mutagenic effect of 5-azacytidine

The high genetic heterogeneity and great adaptability of RNA viruses are ultimately caused by the low replication fidelity of their polymerases. However, single amino acid substitutions that modify replication fidelity can evolve in response to mutagenic treatments with nucleoside analogues. Here, we investigated how two independent mutants of the bacteriophage Qβ replicase (Thr210Ala and Tyr410His) reduce sensitivity to the nucleoside analogue 5-azacytidine (AZC). Despite being located outside the catalytic site, both mutants reduced the mutation frequency in the presence of the drug. However, they did not modify the type of AZC-induced substitutions, which was mediated mainly by ambiguous base pairing of the analogue with purines. Furthermore, the Thr210Ala and Tyr410His substitutions had little or no effect on replication fidelity in untreated viruses. Also, both substitutions were costly in the absence of AZC or when the action of the drug was suppressed by adding an excess of natural pyrimidines (uridine or cytosine). Overall, the phenotypic properties of these two mutants were highly convergent, despite the mutations being located in different domains of the Qβ replicase. This suggests that treatment with a given nucleoside analogue tends to select for a unique functional response in the viral replicase.

IMPORTANCE

In the last years, artificial increase of the replication error rate has been proposed as an antiviral therapy. In this study, we investigated the mechanisms by which two substitutions in the Qβ replicase confer partial resistance to the mutagenic nucleoside analogue AZC. As opposed to previous work with animal viruses, where different mutations selected sequentially conferred nucleoside analogue resistance through different mechanisms, our results suggest that there are few or no alternative AZC resistance phenotypes in Qβ. Also, despite resistance mutations being highly costly in the absence of the drug, there was no sequential fixation of secondary mutations. Bacteriophage Qβ is the virus with the highest reported mutation rate, which should make it particularly sensitive to nucleoside analogue treatments, probably favoring resistance mutations even if they incur high costs. The results are also relevant for understanding the possible pathways by which fidelity of the replication machinery can be modified.

Thinking Outside the Triangle: Replication Fidelity of the Largest RNA Viruses

When judged by ubiquity, adaptation, and emergence of new diseases, RNA viruses are arguably the most successful biological organisms. This success has been attributed to a defect of sorts: high mutation rates (low fidelity) resulting in mutant swarms that allow rapid selection for fitness in new environments. Studies of viruses with small RNA genomes have identified fidelity determinants in viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases and have shown that RNA viruses likely replicate within a limited fidelity range to maintain fitness. In this review we compare the fidelity of small RNA viruses with that of the largest RNA viruses, the coronaviruses. Coronaviruses encode the first known viral RNA proofreading exoribonuclease, a function that likely allowed expansion of the coronavirus genome and that dramatically increases replication fidelity and the range of tolerated variation. We propose models for regulation of coronavirus fidelity and discuss the implications of altered fidelity for RNA virus replication, pathogenesis, and evolution.

Replication of Plant Viruses

Viruses replicate using both their own genetic information and host cell components and machinery. The different genome types have different replication pathways which contain controls on linking the process with translation and movement around the cell as well as not compromising the infected cell. This chapter discusses the replication mechanisms, faults in replication and replication of viruses co-infecting cells.

Viruses replicate using both their own genetic information and host cell components and machinery. The different genome types have different replication pathways which contain controls on linking the process with translation and movement around the cell as well as not compromising the infected cell. This chapter discusses the replication mechanisms, faults in replication and replication of viruses coinfecting cells.

Structural organization of viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases

This review describes available data on the structure of viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases (RdRP) obtained from X-ray analysis and discusses the functional significance of the structural elements of these enzymes. Because most of the studies done to date relate to RdRP structures of picorna-, flavi-, and caliciviruses, here we consider mostly the structures of RdRP of these groups of viruses, and also include information about polymerases of other virus families.

Structure of the RNA-directed RNA polymerase from the cystovirus φ12

We have determined the structure of P2, the self-priming RdRp from cystovirus φ12 in two crystal forms (A, B) at resolutions of 1.7 Å and 2.1 Å. Form A contains Mg(2+) bound at a site that deviates from the canonical noncatalytic position seen in form B. These structures provide insight into the temperature sensitivity of a ts-mutant. However, the tunnel through which template ssRNA accesses the active site is partially occluded by a flexible loop; this feature, along with suboptimal positioning of other structural elements that prevent the formation of a stable initiation complex, indicate an inactive conformation in crystallo.

Role of motif B loop in allosteric regulation of RNA-dependent RNA polymerization activity

Increasing amounts of data show that conformational dynamics are essential for protein function. Unveiling the mechanisms by which this flexibility affects the activity of a given enzyme and how it is controlled by other effectors opens the door to the design of a new generation of highly specific drugs. Viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases (RdRPs) are not an exception. These enzymes, essential for the multiplication of all RNA viruses, catalyze the formation of phosphodiester bonds between ribonucleotides in an RNA-template-dependent fashion. Inhibition of RdRP activity will prevent genome replication and virus multiplication. Thus, RdRPs, like the reverse transcriptase of retroviruses, are validated targets for the development of antiviral therapeutics. X-ray crystallography of RdRPs trapped in multiple steps throughout the catalytic process, together with NMR data and molecular dynamics simulations, have shown that all polymerase regions contributing to conserved motifs required for substrate binding, catalysis and product release are highly flexible and some of them are predicted to display correlated motions. All these dynamic elements can be modulated by external effectors, which appear as useful tools for the development of effective allosteric inhibitors that block or disturb the flexibility of these enzymes, ultimately impeding their function. Among all movements observed, motif B, and the B-loop at its N-terminus in particular, appears as a new potential druggable site.

Fluorescence technologies for monitoring interactions between biological molecules in vitro

Over the last two centuries, the discovery and understanding of the principle of fluorescence have provided new means of characterizing physical/biological/chemical processes in a noninvasive manner. Fluorescence spectroscopy has become one of the most powerful and widely applied methods in the life sciences, from fundamental research to clinical applications. In vitro, fluorescence approaches offer the potential to sense in real-time extra and intracellular molecular interactions and enzymatic reactions, which constitutes a major advantage over other approaches to the study of biomolecular interactions. This technology has been used for the characterization of protein/protein, protein/nucleic acid, protein/substrate, and biomembrane/biomolecule interactions, which play crucial roles in the regulation of cellular pathways. This chapter reviews the different fluorescence strategies that have been developed for sensing molecular interactions in vitro at both steady- and pre-steady-state levels.

Highly similar structural frames link the template tunnel and NTP entry tunnel to the exterior surface in RNA-dependent RNA polymerases

RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) is essential to viral replication and is therefore one of the primary targets of countermeasures against these dangerous infectious agents. Development of broad-spectrum therapeutics targeting polymerases has been hampered by the extreme sequence variability of these sequences. RdRps range in length from 400–800 residues, yet contain only ∼20 residues that are conserved in most species. In this study, we made structure-based comparisons that are independent of sequence composition using a recently developed algorithm. We identified residue-to-residue correspondences of multiple protein structures and created (two-dimensional) structure-based alignment maps of 37 polymerase structures that provide both sequence and structure details. Using these maps, we determined that ∼75% of each polymerase species consists of seven protein segments, each of which has high structural similarity to segments in other species, though they are widely divergent in sequence composition and order. We define each of these segments as a ‘homomorph’, and each includes (though most are much larger than) the well-known conserved polymerase motifs. All homomorphs contact the template tunnel or nucleoside triphosphate (NTP) entry tunnel and the exterior of the protein, suggesting they constitute a structural and functional skeleton common among the polymerases.

What is the role of motif D in the nucleotide incorporation catalyzed by the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase from poliovirus?

Poliovirus (PV) is a well-characterized RNA virus, and the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) from PV (3D^pol) has been widely employed as an important model for understanding the structure-function relationships of RNA and DNA polymerases. Many experimental studies of the kinetics of nucleotide incorporation by RNA and DNA polymerases suggest that each nucleotide incorporation cycle basically consists of six sequential steps: (1) an incoming nucleotide binds to the polymerase-primer/template complex; (2) the ternary complex (nucleotide-polymerase-primer/template) undergoes a conformational change; (3) phosphoryl transfer occurs (the chemistry step); (4) a post-chemistry conformational change occurs; (5) pyrophosphate is released; (6) RNA or DNA translocation. Recently, the importance of structural motif D in nucleotide incorporation has been recognized, but the functions of motif D are less well explored so far. In this work, we used two computational techniques, molecular dynamics (MD) simulation and quantum mechanics (QM) method, to explore the roles of motif D in nucleotide incorporation catalyzed by PV 3D^pol. We discovered that the motif D, exhibiting high flexibility in either the presence or the absence of RNA primer/template, might facilitate the transportation of incoming nucleotide or outgoing pyrophosphate. We observed that the dynamic behavior of motif A, which should be essential to the polymerase function, was greatly affected by the motions of motif D. In the end, through QM calculations, we attempted to investigate the proton transfer in enzyme catalysis associated with a few amino acid residues of motifs F and D.

The missing link between dynamics and structure or between dynamics and function of a protein has recently been paid much attention by many scientists since it has been recognized that a folded protein should be considered as an ensemble of conformations fluctuating in the neighborhood of its native state, instead of being pictured as a single static structure. Thus, to completely understand a protein and its functions, the dynamic features of the protein under a certain condition are required to be known. In this study, we performed atomistic MD simulations and QM calculations on the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) from poliovirus (PV), which is an important model system for gaining insight into the features of RNA and DNA polymerases. Through the computational studies of PV 3D^pol, we aim at finding out valuable information about the dynamic properties of the enzyme and exploring the molecular mechanism of the phosphoryl transfer in nucleotide incorporation.

Exploring the dynamics of four RNA-dependent RNA polymerases by a coarse-grained model

In this article, we present a hybrid ENM/MARTINI coarse-grained model and examine the impact of reduced chemical detail on both static and dynamic properties by comparing against explicit atomistic simulations. This methodology complements the advanced molecular characterization and dynamics of proteins for medical and bioengineering applications by developing a fundamental understanding of how the motion and molecular characteristics of proteins, viruses, their precursors, and their interactions with the environment govern their behavior in different populations. As an example, we explore the dynamics of RNA-dependent RNA polymerases (RdRPs) from the following viruses: poliovirus, Coxsackie virus B3, human rhinovirus 16, and foot-and-mouth-disease virus. The hybrid coarse-grained model allows the microsecond time scales of interest for biological functions to be explored. Additionally, the ENM/MARTINI model captures the main features obtained from atomistic MD simulations for each of the RdRPs studied herein, including the higher flexibility of the pinky finger and thumb regions, as well as collective motions that might contribute significantly to the conformational transition between the open and closed states.

Dengue virus nonstructural protein 5 adopts multiple conformations in solution

Dengue virus (DENV) nonstructural protein 5 (NS5) is composed of two globular domains separated by a 10-residue linker. The N-terminal domain participates in the synthesis of a mRNA cap 1 structure ((7Me)GpppA(2'OMe)) at the 5' end of the viral genome and possesses guanylyltransferase, guanine-N7-methyltransferase, and nucleoside-2'O-methyltransferase activities. The C-terminal domain is an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase responsible for viral RNA synthesis. Although crystal structures of the two isolated domains have been obtained, there are no structural data for full-length NS5. It is also unclear whether the two NS5 domains interact with each other to form a stable structure in which the relative orientation of the two domains is fixed. To investigate the structure and dynamics of DENV type 3 NS5 in solution, we conducted small-angle X-ray scattering experiments with the full-length protein. NS5 was found to be monomeric and well-folded under the conditions tested. The results of these experiments also suggest that NS5 adopts multiple conformations in solution, ranging from compact to more extended forms in which the two domains do not seem to interact with each other. We interpret the multiple conformations of NS5 observed in solution as resulting from weak interactions between the two NS5 domains and flexibility of the linker in the absence of other components of the replication complex.

Molecular dynamics simulation in virus research

Virus replication in the host proceeds by chains of interactions between viral and host proteins. The interactions are deeply influenced by host immune molecules and anti-viral compounds, as well as by mutations in viral proteins. To understand how these interactions proceed mechanically and how they are influenced by mutations, one needs to know the structures and dynamics of the proteins. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation is a powerful computational method for delineating motions of proteins at an atomic-scale via theoretical and empirical principles in physical chemistry. Recent advances in the hardware and software for biomolecular simulation have rapidly improved the precision and performance of this technique. Consequently, MD simulation is quickly extending the range of applications in biology, helping to reveal unique features of protein structures that would be hard to obtain by experimental methods alone. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in MD simulations in the study of virus–host interactions and evolution, and present future perspectives on this technique.

Molecular dynamics simulations of viral RNA polymerases link conserved and correlated motions of functional elements to fidelity

The viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) is essential for multiplication of all RNA viruses. The sequence diversity of an RNA virus population contributes to its ability to infect the host. This diversity emanates from errors made by the RdRp during RNA synthesis. The physical basis for RdRp fidelity is unclear but is linked to conformational changes occurring during the nucleotide-addition cycle. To understand RdRp dynamics that might influence RdRp function, we have analyzed all-atom molecular dynamics simulations on the nanosecond timescale of four RdRps from the picornavirus family that exhibit 30–74% sequence identity. Principal component analysis showed that the major motions observed during the simulations derived from conserved structural motifs and regions of known function. The dynamics of residues participating in the same biochemical property, for example, RNA binding, nucleotide binding or catalysis, were correlated even when spatially distant on the RdRp structure. The conserved and correlated dynamics of functional structural elements suggest coevolution of dynamics with structure and function of the RdRp. Crystal structures of all picornavirus RdRps exhibit a template–nascent RNA duplex channel too small to fully accommodate duplex RNA. Simulations revealed opening and closing motions of the RNA and nucleoside triphosphate channels, which might be relevant to nucleoside triphosphate entry, inorganic pyrophosphate exit and translocation. A role for nanosecond timescale dynamics in RdRp fidelity is supported by the altered dynamics of the high-fidelity G64S derivative of PV RdRp relative to wild-type enzyme.

Slow conformational dynamics in the cystoviral RNA-directed RNA polymerase P2: influence of substrate nucleotides and template RNA

The RNA-directed RNA polymerase P2 from cystovirus ϕ6 catalyzes the de novo synthesis of positive and negative strands of the viral double-stranded RNA genome. P2 is mobile on the slow, microsecond to millisecond time scale with various motional modes, putatively assisting in RNA translocation and catalysis. Here we investigate the influence of the extreme 3'-end sequence of the single-stranded RNA templates and the nature of the substrate nucleotide triphosphates on these motional modes using multiple-quantum NMR spectroscopy. We find that P2, in the presence of templates bearing the proper genomic 3'-ends or the preferred initiation nucleotide, displays unique dynamic signatures that are different from those in the presence of nonphysiological templates or substrates. This suggests that dynamics may play a role in the fidelity of recognition of the correct substrates and template sequences to initiate RNA polymerization.

Long-range interaction networks in the function and fidelity of poliovirus RNA-dependent RNA polymerase studied by nuclear magnetic resonance

The fidelity of the poliovirus RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (3D(pol)) plays a direct role in the genomic evolution and pathogenesis of the virus. A single site mutation (Gly64Ser) that is remote from the catalytic center results in a higher fidelity polymerase. NMR studies with [methyl-(13)C]methionine-labeled protein were used to compare the solution structure and dynamics of wild-type and Gly64Ser 3D(pol). The chemical shifts for the Met6 resonance were significantly different between wild-type and Gly64Ser 3D(pol) when bound in ternary complexes with RNA and incorrect, but not with correct, nucleotide, suggesting that the Gly64Ser mutation induces structural changes in the N-terminal β-strand when the enzyme is bound to incorrect but not correct nucleotide. We also observe changes in the transverse relaxation times for methionines near regions important for nucleotide and RNA binding and catalysis. Our strategy to assign the [methyl-(13)C]methionine resonances involved separately mutating each of the 17 methionines. Several substitutions produced additional resonances for both Met6 and Met187, a reporter for RNA binding, and conformational changes in the highly conserved motif B loop, even though these methionines are greater than 20 Å apart. The results for Gly64Ser and the other mutants are intriguing considering that they can result in structural and/or dynamic changes to methionines distant from the site of mutation. We propose that there is a long-distance network operating throughout 3D(pol) that coordinates ligand binding, conformational changes, and catalysis. Mutation of Gly64 results in structural and/or dynamic changes to the network that may affect polymerase fidelity.

Dynamics on multiple timescales in the RNA-directed RNA polymerase from the cystovirus phi6

The de novo initiating RNA-directed RNA polymerase (RdRP), P2, forms the central machinery in the infection cycle of the bacteriophage ϕ6 by performing the dual tasks of replication and transcription of the double-stranded RNA genome in the host cell. By measurement and quantitative analysis of multiple-quantum spin-relaxation data for the δ1 positions of Ile residues that are distributed over the 3D-fold of P2, we find that the enzyme is dynamic both on the fast (ps–ns) and slow (µs–ms) timescales. The characteristics of several motional modes including those that coincide with the catalytic timescale (500–800/s) are altered in the presence of substrate analogs and single-stranded RNA templates. These studies reveal the plasticity of this finely tuned molecular machine and represent a first step towards linking structural information available from a host of crystal structures to catalytic mechanisms and timescales obtained from the measurements of kinetics for homologous systems in solution.