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Cocola C, Abeni E, Martino V, Piscitelli E, Morara S, Pelucchi P, Mosca E, Chiodi A, Mohamed T, Palizban M, De Petro G, Porta G, Greve B, Noghero A, Magnaghi V, Bellipanni G, Kehler J, Götte M, Bussolino F, Milanesi L, Zucchi I, Reinbold R. Transmembrane protein TMEM230, regulator of metalloproteins and motor proteins in gliomas and gliosis. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY AND STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2024; 141:255-297. [PMID: 38960477 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apcsb.2024.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/05/2024]
Abstract
Glial cells provide physical and chemical support and protection for neurons and for the extracellular compartments of neural tissue through secretion of soluble factors, insoluble scaffolds, and vesicles. Additionally, glial cells have regenerative capacity by remodeling their physical microenvironment and changing physiological properties of diverse cell types in their proximity. Various types of aberrant glial and macrophage cells are associated with human diseases, disorders, and malignancy. We previously demonstrated that transmembrane protein, TMEM230 has tissue revascularization and regenerating capacity by its ability to secrete pro-angiogenic factors and metalloproteinases, inducing endothelial cell sprouting and channel formation. In healthy normal neural tissue, TMEM230 is predominantly expressed in glial and marcophate cells, suggesting a prominent role in neural tissue homeostasis. TMEM230 regulation of the endomembrane system was supported by co-expression with RNASET2 (lysosome, mitochondria, and vesicles) and STEAP family members (Golgi complex). Intracellular trafficking and extracellular secretion of glial cellular components are associated with endocytosis, exocytosis and phagocytosis mediated by motor proteins. Trafficked components include metalloproteins, metalloproteinases, glycans, and glycoconjugate processing and digesting enzymes that function in phagosomes and vesicles to regulate normal neural tissue microenvironment, homeostasis, stress response, and repair following neural tissue injury or degeneration. Aberrantly high sustained levels TMEM230 promotes metalloprotein expression, trafficking and secretion which contribute to tumor associated infiltration and hypervascularization of high tumor grade gliomas. Following injury of the central nervous or peripheral systems, transcient regulated upregulation of TMEM230 promotes tissue wound healing, remodeling and revascularization by activating glial and macrophage generated microchannels/microtubules (referred to as vascular mimicry) and blood vessel sprouting and branching. Our results support that TMEM230 may act as a master regulator of motor protein mediated trafficking and compartmentalization of a large class of metalloproteins in gliomas and gliosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cinzia Cocola
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council, Milan, Italy
| | - Edoardo Abeni
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council, Milan, Italy
| | - Valentina Martino
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council, Milan, Italy
| | - Eleonora Piscitelli
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council, Milan, Italy
| | - Stefano Morara
- Institute of Neuroscience, National Research Council, Vedano al Lambro, Monza Brianza, Italy
| | - Paride Pelucchi
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council, Milan, Italy
| | - Ettore Mosca
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council, Milan, Italy
| | - Alice Chiodi
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council, Milan, Italy
| | - Tasnim Mohamed
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Mira Palizban
- Department of Gynecology, and Obstetrics, University Hospital of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Giuseppina De Petro
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Giovanni Porta
- Centro di Medicina Genomica, Department of Medicine and Surgery University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Burkhard Greve
- Department of Radiation Therapy and Radiation Oncology, University Hospital of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Alessio Noghero
- Laboratory of Vascular Oncology Candiolo Cancer Institute, IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy; Lovelace Biomedical Research Institute, Albuquerque, NM, United States
| | - Valerio Magnaghi
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Gianfranco Bellipanni
- Department of Biology, Center for Biotechnology, Sbarro Institute for Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States; Center for Biotechnology, Sbarro Institute for Research and Molecular Medicine and Department of Biology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United State
| | - James Kehler
- National Institutes of Health, NIDDK, Laboratory of Cell and Molecular Biology, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Martin Götte
- Department of Gynecology, and Obstetrics, University Hospital of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Federico Bussolino
- Lovelace Biomedical Research Institute, Albuquerque, NM, United States; Department of Oncology, University of Turin, Orbassano, Italy
| | - Luciano Milanesi
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council, Milan, Italy
| | - Ileana Zucchi
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council, Milan, Italy; Associazione Fondazione Renato Dulbecco, Milano, Italy.
| | - Rolland Reinbold
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council, Milan, Italy; Associazione Fondazione Renato Dulbecco, Milano, Italy.
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Zhu J, Samperisi L, Kalaj M, Chiong JA, Bailey JB, Zhang Z, Yu CJ, Sikma RE, Zou X, Cohen SM, Huang Z, Tezcan FA. Metal-hydrogen-pi-bonded organic frameworks. Dalton Trans 2022; 51:1927-1935. [PMID: 35019931 DOI: 10.1039/d1dt04278e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We report the synthesis and characterization of a new series of permanently porous, three-dimensional metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), M-HAF-2 (M = Fe, Ga, or In), constructed from tetratopic, hydroxamate-based, chelating linkers. The structure of M-HAF-2 was determined by three-dimensional electron diffraction (3D ED), revealing a unique interpenetrated hcb-a net topology. This unusual topology is enabled by the presence of free hydroxamic acid groups, which lead to the formation of a diverse network of cooperative interactions comprising metal-hydroxamate coordination interactions at single metal nodes, staggered π-π interactions between linkers, and H-bonding interactions between metal-coordinated and free hydroxamate groups. Such extensive, multimodal interconnectivity is reminiscent of the complex, noncovalent interaction networks of proteins and endows M-HAF-2 frameworks with high thermal and chemical stability and allows them to readily undergo postsynthetic metal ion exchange (PSE) between trivalent metal ions. We demonstrate that M-HAF-2 can serve as versatile porous materials for ionic separations, aided by one-dimensional channels lined by continuously π-stacked aromatic groups and H-bonding hydroxamate functionalities. As an addition to the small group of hydroxamic acid-based MOFs, M-HAF-2 represents a structural merger between MOFs and hydrogen-bonded organic frameworks (HOFs) and illustrates the utility of non-canonical metal-coordinating functionalities in the discovery of new bonding and topological patterns in reticular materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Zhu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
| | - Laura Samperisi
- Department of Materials and Environmental Chemistry, Stockholm University, Stockholm SE-106 91, Sweden.
| | - Mark Kalaj
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
| | - Jerika A Chiong
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
| | - Jake B Bailey
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
| | - Zhiyin Zhang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
| | - Chung-Jui Yu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
| | - R Eric Sikma
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
| | - Xiaodong Zou
- Department of Materials and Environmental Chemistry, Stockholm University, Stockholm SE-106 91, Sweden.
| | - Seth M Cohen
- Department of Materials and Environmental Chemistry, Stockholm University, Stockholm SE-106 91, Sweden.
| | - Zhehao Huang
- Department of Materials and Environmental Chemistry, Stockholm University, Stockholm SE-106 91, Sweden.
| | - F Akif Tezcan
- Department of Materials and Environmental Chemistry, Stockholm University, Stockholm SE-106 91, Sweden.
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Abstract
Heavy metals are essential for a wide range of biological processes, including the growth and reproduction of cells, synthesis of biomolecules, many enzymatic reactions, and the body’s immunity, but their excessive intake is harmful. Specifically, they cause oxidative stress (OS) and generate free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in metabolism. In addition, the accumulation of heavy metals in humans can cause serious damage to different organs, especially respiratory, nervous and reproductive and digestive systems. Biologically, metal chelation therapy is often used to treat metal toxicity. This process occurs through the interaction between the ligand and a central metal atom, forming a complex ring-like structure. After metals are chelated with appropriate chelating agents, their damage in metabolism can be prevented and efficiently removed from the body. On the other hand, heavy metals, including Zn, Fe and Cu, are necessary for the suitable functioning of different proteins including enzymes in metabolism. However, when the same metals accumulate at levels higher than the optimum level, they can easily become toxic and have harmful effects toward biomolecules. In this case, it induces the formation of ROS and nitrogen species (RNS) resulting in peroxidation of biological molecules such as lipids in the plasma membrane. Antioxidants have an increasing interest in many fields due to their protective effects, especially in food and pharmaceutical products. Screening of antioxidant properties of compounds needs appropriate methods including metal chelating assay. In this study, a general approach to the bonding and chelating properties of metals is described. For this purpose, the basic principles and chemical principles of metal chelation methods, both in vivo and in vitro, are outlined and discussed. Hence, in the main sections of this review, the descriptions related to metal ions, metal chelating, antioxidants, importance of metal chelating in biological system and definitions of metal chelating assays as widely used methods to determine antioxidant ability of compounds are provided. In addition, some chemical properties, technical and critical details of the used chelation methods are given.
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Stein A, Liang AD, Sahin R, Ward TR. Incorporation of Metal-Chelating Unnatural Amino Acids into HaloTag for Allylic Deamination. J Organomet Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jorganchem.2022.122272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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An X, Chen C, Wang T, Huang A, Zhang D, Han MJ, Wang J. Genetic Incorporation of Selenotyrosine Significantly Improves Enzymatic Activity of Agrobacterium radiobacter Phosphotriesterase. Chembiochem 2021; 22:2535-2539. [PMID: 32789938 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202000460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2020] [Revised: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Tyrosine plays important roles in many enzymes. To facilitate enzyme design, mechanistic studies and minimize structural perturbation in the active site, here we report the genetic incorporation of a novel unnatural amino acid selenotyrosine (SeHF), which has single-atom replacement in comparison to tyrosine. The arPTE-(Agrobacterium radiobacter Phosphotriesterase) Tyr309SeHF mutant exhibits a significant 12-fold increase in kcat and 3.2-fold enhancement in kcat /KM at pH 7.0. Molecular dynamics simulations show that the SeHF309 mutation results in a conformational switch which opens up the product release pocket and increases the product release rate, thereby elevating the overall enzyme activity. Significant improvement of the catalytic efficiency at neutral pH by single unnatural amino acid (UAA) mutation broadens the application of this enzyme, and provides valuable insights to the mechanism. Our method represents a new approach for designing enzymes with enhanced activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojing An
- Laboratory of Non-coding RNA, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 15 Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Chao Chen
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, China
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (UCAS), Hefei, China
| | - Tianyuan Wang
- Laboratory of Non-coding RNA, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 15 Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Aiping Huang
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, China
| | - Dawei Zhang
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, China
| | - Ming-Jie Han
- Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 32 West 7th Avenue, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin, 300308, China
| | - Jiangyun Wang
- Laboratory of Non-coding RNA, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 15 Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100101, China
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Martínez-Rodríguez S, Torres JM, Sánchez P, Ortega E. Overview on Multienzymatic Cascades for the Production of Non-canonical α-Amino Acids. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:887. [PMID: 32850740 PMCID: PMC7431475 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The 22 genetically encoded amino acids (AAs) present in proteins (the 20 standard AAs together with selenocysteine and pyrrolysine), are commonly referred as proteinogenic AAs in the literature due to their appearance in ribosome-synthetized polypeptides. Beyond the borders of this key set of compounds, the rest of AAs are generally named imprecisely as non-proteinogenic AAs, even when they can also appear in polypeptide chains as a result of post-transductional machinery. Besides their importance as metabolites in life, many of D-α- and L-α-"non-canonical" amino acids (NcAAs) are of interest in the biotechnological and biomedical fields. They have found numerous applications in the discovery of new medicines and antibiotics, drug synthesis, cosmetic, and nutritional compounds, or in the improvement of protein and peptide pharmaceuticals. In addition to the numerous studies dealing with the asymmetric synthesis of NcAAs, many different enzymatic pathways have been reported in the literature allowing for the biosynthesis of NcAAs. Due to the huge heterogeneity of this group of molecules, this review is devoted to provide an overview on different established multienzymatic cascades for the production of non-canonical D-α- and L-α-AAs, supplying neophyte and experienced professionals in this field with different illustrative examples in the literature. Whereas the discovery of new or newly designed enzymes is of great interest, dusting off previous enzymatic methodologies by a "back and to the future" strategy might accelerate the implementation of new or improved multienzymatic cascades.
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Novel combinations of experimental and computational analysis tested on the binding of metalloprotoporphyrins to albumin. Int J Biol Macromol 2019; 134:445-457. [PMID: 31078597 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.05.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2019] [Revised: 05/08/2019] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The evidence that Human Serum Albumin (HSA) binds metal ions and organometallic compounds has generated interest in its physiological role as a metalloprotein and as a vehicle for synthetic biology applications (e.g., synthetic blood and solar energy conversion). HSA has been shown to bind metallo-porphyrins, however, the structural details of such interactions are available only for the HSA:heme complex. A typical challenge for studying the interaction of proteins with metalloporphyrins is the poor solubility of the ligands that affect the characterization the complexes. The manuscript shows that a combination of dialysis and centrifugation yields aqueous solutions that contain >90% HSA:porphyrin complexes and virtually eliminate aggregated ligands. The removal of aggregates increases the quality of the optical spectroscopy data which, in turn, yield more accurate binding constants (~0.1 and 2.1 × 106 M-1) and reveal FRET between Trp214 and the porphyrins. The Trp-porphyrin distance was estimated to be within the 28-34 Å range and was used to guide the search of binding sites through a novel feedback approach with docking simulations. Results suggest while some protoporphyrins (metal-free, Fe(III)PPIX and Mg(II)PPIX) bind HSA at the heme site, others (Zn(II)PPIX, Mn(III)PPIX and Sn(IV)PPIX) are more likely to bind the Cys34.
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Rezhdo A, Islam M, Huang M, Van Deventer JA. Future prospects for noncanonical amino acids in biological therapeutics. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2019; 60:168-178. [PMID: 30974337 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2019.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2019] [Accepted: 02/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
There is growing evidence that noncanonical amino acids (ncAAs) can be utilized in the creation of biological therapeutics ranging from protein conjugates to cell-based therapies. However, when does genetically encoding ncAAs yield biologics with unique properties compared to other approaches? In this review, we attempt to answer this question in the broader context of therapeutic development, emphasizing advances within the past two years. In several areas, ncAAs add valuable routes to therapeutically relevant entities, but application-specific needs ultimately determine whether ncAA-mediated or alternative solutions are preferred. Looking forward, using ncAAs to perform 'protein medicinal chemistry,' in which atomic-level changes to proteins dramatically enhance therapeutic properties, is a promising emerging area. Further upgrades to the performance of ncAA incorporation technologies will be essential to realizing the full potential of ncAAs in biological therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arlinda Rezhdo
- Chemical and Biological Engineering Department, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155, United States
| | - Mariha Islam
- Chemical and Biological Engineering Department, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155, United States
| | - Manjie Huang
- Chemical and Biological Engineering Department, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155, United States
| | - James A Van Deventer
- Chemical and Biological Engineering Department, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155, United States; Biomedical Engineering Department, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155, United States.
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Schneider T, Gavrilova I, Budisa N. Synthesis of a new metal chelating amino acid: Terpyridyl-alanine. Tetrahedron Lett 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2019.02.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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10
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Vušak D, Smrečki N, Prugovečki B, Đilović I, Kirasić I, Žilić D, Muratović S, Matković-Čalogović D. Cobalt, nickel and copper complexes with glycinamide: structural insights and magnetic properties. RSC Adv 2019; 9:21637-21645. [PMID: 35518873 PMCID: PMC9066431 DOI: 10.1039/c9ra03693h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2019] [Accepted: 06/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Ten new compounds of Co, Ni and Cu with glycinamide (HL = glycinamide): [Co(H2O)2(HL)2]Cl2 (1a), [Co(H2O)2(HL)2]Br1.06Cl0.94 (1b), [Co(H2O)2(HL)2]I2 (1c), [Ni(H2O)2(HL)2]Cl2 (2a), [Ni(H2O)2(HL)2]Br0.94Cl1.06 (2b), [Ni(H2O)2(HL)2]I2 (low and room temperature polymorph, 2cLT and 2cRT), [CuCl2(HL)2] (3a), [CuBr1.3Cl0.7(HL)2] (3b) and {[Cu(HL)2]2[Cu2I6]}n (3c), as well as glycinamide hydroiodide (H2LI) and a new polymorph of glycinamide hydrochloride (β-H2LCl) were prepared and characterized by single-crystal X-ray diffraction, infrared spectroscopy, thermal analysis (TG/DTA) and ESR spectroscopy. 1a, 1b, 2a and 2b are isostructural, as well as 1c and 2cRT, while the Cu compounds (3a–c) have entirely different molecular structures. All investigated compounds are mononuclear with exception of the 1D coordination polymer 3c. Compound 3c contains copper ions in the mixed oxidation state Cu(i) and Cu(ii) with interesting magnetic properties. Paramagnetic behaviour was found in 1a, 1b, 3a and 3b. Temperature induced polymorphic transformation was observed in 2c. Compounds 1a and 3a showed moderate antiproliferative activity and selectivity toward the human breast tumor cell line MCF-7. We report the crystal structures and magnetic properties of nine mononuclear complexes and one 1D coordination polymer containing CuII/CuI ions.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Darko Vušak
- Department of Chemistry
- Faculty of Science
- University of Zagreb
- HR-10000 Zagreb
- Croatia
| | - Neven Smrečki
- Department of Chemistry
- Faculty of Science
- University of Zagreb
- HR-10000 Zagreb
- Croatia
| | - Biserka Prugovečki
- Department of Chemistry
- Faculty of Science
- University of Zagreb
- HR-10000 Zagreb
- Croatia
| | - Ivica Đilović
- Department of Chemistry
- Faculty of Science
- University of Zagreb
- HR-10000 Zagreb
- Croatia
| | - Inka Kirasić
- Department of Chemistry
- Faculty of Science
- University of Zagreb
- HR-10000 Zagreb
- Croatia
| | - Dijana Žilić
- Laboratory for Magnetic Resonances
- Division of Physical Chemistry
- Ruđer Bošković Institute
- HR-10000 Zagreb
- Croatia
| | - Senada Muratović
- Laboratory for Magnetic Resonances
- Division of Physical Chemistry
- Ruđer Bošković Institute
- HR-10000 Zagreb
- Croatia
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Almhjell PJ, Boville CE, Arnold FH. Engineering enzymes for noncanonical amino acid synthesis. Chem Soc Rev 2018; 47:8980-8997. [PMID: 30280154 PMCID: PMC6434697 DOI: 10.1039/c8cs00665b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The standard proteinogenic amino acids grant access to a myriad of chemistries that harmonize to create life. Outside of these twenty canonical protein building blocks are countless noncanonical amino acids (ncAAs), either found in nature or created by man. Interest in ncAAs has grown as research has unveiled their importance as precursors to natural products and pharmaceuticals, biological probes, and more. Despite their broad applications, synthesis of ncAAs remains a challenge, as poor stereoselectivity and low functional-group compatibility stymie effective preparative routes. The use of enzymes has emerged as a versatile approach to prepare ncAAs, and nature's enzymes can be engineered to synthesize ncAAs more efficiently and expand the amino acid alphabet. In this tutorial review, we briefly outline different enzyme engineering strategies and then discuss examples where engineering has generated new 'ncAA synthases' for efficient, environmentally benign production of a wide and growing collection of valuable ncAAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick J Almhjell
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering 210-41, California Institute of Technology, 1200 East California Boulevard, Pasadena, California 91125, USA.
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