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Gachara G, Suleiman R, Kilima B, Taoussi M, El Kadili S, Fauconnier ML, Barka EA, Vujanovic V, Lahlali R. Pre- and post-harvest aflatoxin contamination and management strategies of Aspergillus spoilage in East African Community maize: review of etiology and climatic susceptibility. Mycotoxin Res 2024:10.1007/s12550-024-00555-0. [PMID: 39264500 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-024-00555-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Revised: 08/04/2024] [Accepted: 08/09/2024] [Indexed: 09/13/2024]
Abstract
Globally, maize (Zea mays L.) is deemed an important cereal that serves as a staple food and feed for humans and animals, respectively. Across the East African Community, maize is the staple food responsible for providing over one-third of calories in diets. Ideally, stored maize functions as man-made grain ecosystems, with nutritive quality changes influenced predominantly by chemical, biological, and physical factors. Food spoilage and fungal contamination are convergent reasons that contribute to the exacerbation of mycotoxins prevalence, particularly when storage conditions have deteriorated. In Kenya, aflatoxins are known to be endemic with the 2004 acute aflatoxicosis outbreak being described as one of the most ravaging epidemics in the history of human mycotoxin poisoning. In Tanzania, the worst aflatoxin outbreak occurred in 2016 with case fatalities reaching 50%. Similar cases of aflatoxicoses have also been reported in Uganda, scenarios that depict the severity of mycotoxin contamination across this region. Rwanda, Burundi, and South Sudan seemingly have minimal occurrences and fatalities of aflatoxicoses and aflatoxin contamination. Low diet diversity tends to aggravate human exposure to aflatoxins since maize, as a dietetic staple, is highly aflatoxin-prone. In light of this, it becomes imperative to formulate and develop workable control frameworks that can be embraced in minimizing aflatoxin contamination throughout the food chain. This review evaluates the scope and magnitude of aflatoxin contamination in post-harvest maize and climate susceptibility within an East African Community context. The paper also treats the potential green control strategies against Aspergillus spoilage including biocontrol-prophylactic handling for better and durable maize production.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Gachara
- Department of Plant Protection, Phytopathology Unit, Ecole Nationale d'Agriculture de Meknès, Km 10, Route Haj Kaddour, BP S/40, 50001, Meknès, Morocco.
- Department of AgroBiosciences, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, Lot 660, Hay Moulay Rachid, Ben Guerir, 43150, Morocco.
- Department of Food Sciences and Agro-Processing, School of Engineering and Technology, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3019, Morogoro, Tanzania.
| | - R Suleiman
- Department of Food Sciences and Agro-Processing, School of Engineering and Technology, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3019, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - B Kilima
- Department of Food Sciences and Agro-Processing, School of Engineering and Technology, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3019, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - M Taoussi
- Department of Plant Protection, Phytopathology Unit, Ecole Nationale d'Agriculture de Meknès, Km 10, Route Haj Kaddour, BP S/40, 50001, Meknès, Morocco
- Environment and Valorization of Microbial and Plant Resources Unit, Faculty of Sciences, Moulay Ismail University, Meknès, Morocco
| | - S El Kadili
- Department of Animal Production, Ecole Nationale d'Agriculture de Meknès, Route Haj Kaddour, BP S/40, 50001, Meknes, Morocco
| | - M L Fauconnier
- Gembloux AgroBiotech, University of Liege, Gembloux, Belgium
| | - E A Barka
- Unité de Recherche Résistance Induite et Bio-Protection des Plantes-EA 4707, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, 51100, Reims, France
| | - V Vujanovic
- Department of Food and Bioproduct Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, 51 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5A8, Canada
| | - R Lahlali
- Department of Plant Protection, Phytopathology Unit, Ecole Nationale d'Agriculture de Meknès, Km 10, Route Haj Kaddour, BP S/40, 50001, Meknès, Morocco.
- Department of AgroBiosciences, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, Lot 660, Hay Moulay Rachid, Ben Guerir, 43150, Morocco.
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Achiro E, Okidi L, Echodu R, Alarakol SP, Nassanga P, Ongeng D. Status of food safety knowledge, attitude, and practices of caregivers of children in northern Uganda. Food Sci Nutr 2023; 11:5472-5491. [PMID: 37701219 PMCID: PMC10494620 DOI: 10.1002/fsn3.3504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The safety of homemade weaning foods in low- and middle-income countries is of great concern as rural households have limited access to standardized commercial weaning foods. In the Acholi subregion of Uganda, complementary foods are locally produced. However, there is limited information on the Food safety knowledge (FSK), food safety attitude (FSA), and food hygiene practices (FHP) of the caregivers. This study examined food safety knowledge, attitude, and practices of the caregivers of children 6-23 months of age in Amuru and Nwoya districts, Northern Uganda, between March 2019 and June 2019. A cross-sectional study was conducted involving 180 caregivers. Data were collected using semi-structured questionnaires and focus group discussions and analyzed using descriptive statistics, multivariate binary logistic regression, and thematic content analysis. Caregivers had sufficient FSK (74.1%) and positive FSA (68.1%). However, only 17.6% of them adhered to FHP. Frequency of food safety training (p = .041) and households with children who suffered from foodborne illness (p = .001) significantly predicted FSK. Conversely, both FSK and FSA were significantly predicted by gender roles in decision-making on household income (p = .006) and households with older children (p = .041). A significant positive correlation was observed between FSK and FSA (r = .406, p = .000). However, major barriers to adherence to FHP were inadequate sanitation facilities and caregiver's workload. The overall nontranslation of sufficient FSK and positive FSA into proper FHP calls for future intervention to harness the sociodemographic factors that influence FSK and FSA and address the barriers to FHP among caregivers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunice Achiro
- Department of Food Science and Postharvest Technology, Faculty of Agriculture and EnvironmentGulu UniversityGuluUganda
| | - Lawrence Okidi
- Department of Food Science and Postharvest Technology, Faculty of Agriculture and EnvironmentGulu UniversityGuluUganda
| | - Richard Echodu
- Department of Biology, Faculty of ScienceGulu UniversityGuluUganda
| | - Simon Peter Alarakol
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Faculty of MedicineGulu UniversityGuluUganda
| | - Prossy Nassanga
- Department of Food Science and Postharvest Technology, Faculty of Agriculture and EnvironmentGulu UniversityGuluUganda
| | - Duncan Ongeng
- Department of Food Science and Postharvest Technology, Faculty of Agriculture and EnvironmentGulu UniversityGuluUganda
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3
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Achiro E, Okidi L, Echodu R, Alarakol SP, Anena J, Ongeng D. Prevalence of aflatoxin along processing points of locally made complementary food formulae in northern Uganda: Safety and children's exposure across seasons. Heliyon 2023; 9:e18564. [PMID: 37560682 PMCID: PMC10407127 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e18564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Aflatoxin contamination along the processing points of locally made complementary food composite needs to be ascertained and minimized to reduce exposure to weaning children. The study established the concentrations of total aflatoxin (TAF) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) along the processing points of locally made malted millet sesame soybean composite (MMSSC) across season one (wet) and season two (dry) and determined children's exposure to them. A total of 363 samples were collected in 2019. TAF and AFB1 concentrations were determined quantitatively using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Consequently, exposure of individual children was assessed as Estimated Daily Intake (EDI), (ng kg-1 bw day-1). All the samples along the processing points had detectable concentrations of TAF and AFB1 ranging from 0.578 μg kg-1 to 1.187 μg kg-1 and 0.221 μg kg-1 to 0.649 μg kg-1 respectively. Contamination was highest in raw materials; soybean (Glycine max) > sesame (Sesamum indicum), followed by stored composite, freshly prepared composite, and least in millet (Eleusine coracana). Contamination varied significantly across seasons with the wet season having higher contamination than the dry season at P = 0.05. All samples (100%) were within the European Commission (EC) acceptable maximum tolerable level for TAF and AFB1 (4 μg kg-1 and 2 μg kg-1) respectively for processed foods for general consumption. But were below the EU acceptable maximum tolerable level for TAF and AFB1 (0.4 μg kg-1 and 0.1 μg kg-1) respectively for processed baby foods cereals. However, all were within the United States- Food and Drug Authority (US-FDA) and East African Community (EAC) set maximum acceptable limit of 20 μg kg-1 for TAFs, 10 μg kg-1 and 5 μg kg-1 for TAF and AFB1 respectively. Conversely, exposure to these toxins was much higher than the Provisional Maximum Tolerable Dietary Intake (PMTDI) of 0.4 ng kg-1 bw day-1 to 1.0 ng kg-1 bw day-1. A significant difference in exposure to both toxins was observed with the weight. The age of 5 months was the most exposed. A concerted effort is needed to reduce children's exposure to MMSSC to TAF and AFB1, taking sesame and soybean as priority ingredients and proper storage based on season to control contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunice Achiro
- Department of Food Science and Postharvest Technology, Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, Gulu University, P. O. Box 166, Gulu, Uganda
| | - Lawrence Okidi
- Department of Food Science and Postharvest Technology, Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, Gulu University, P. O. Box 166, Gulu, Uganda
| | - Richard Echodu
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, P. O. Box 166 Gulu University, Gulu, Uganda
| | - Simon Peter Alarakol
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Gulu University, P. O. Box 166, Gulu, Uganda
| | - Juliet Anena
- Department of Food Science and Postharvest Technology, Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, Gulu University, P. O. Box 166, Gulu, Uganda
| | - Duncan Ongeng
- Department of Food Science and Postharvest Technology, Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, Gulu University, P. O. Box 166, Gulu, Uganda
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Wokorach G, Landschoot S, Lakot A, Karyeija SA, Audenaert K, Echodu R, Haesaert G. Characterization of Ugandan Endemic Aspergillus Species and Identification of Non-Aflatoxigenic Isolates for Potential Biocontrol of Aflatoxins. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:304. [PMID: 35622551 PMCID: PMC9143334 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14050304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute stunting in children, liver cancer, and death often occur due to human exposure to aflatoxins in food. The severity of aflatoxin contamination depends on the type of Aspergillus fungus infecting the crops. In this study, Aspergillus species were isolated from households’ staple foods and were characterized for different aflatoxin chemotypes. The non-aflatoxigenic chemotypes were evaluated for their ability to reduce aflatoxin levels produced by aflatoxigenic A. flavus strains on maize grains. Aspergillus flavus (63%), A. tamarii (14%), and A. niger (23%) were the main species present. The A. flavus species included isolates that predominantly produced aflatoxins B1 and B2, with most isolates producing a high amount (>20 ug/µL) of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), and a marginal proportion of them also producing G aflatoxins with a higher level of aflatoxin G1 (AFG1) than AFB1. Some non-aflatoxigenic A. tamarii demonstrated a strong ability to reduce the level of AFB1 by more than 95% when co-inoculated with aflatoxigenic A. flavus. Therefore, field evaluation of both non-aflatoxigenic A. flavus and A. tamarii would be an important step toward developing biocontrol agents for mitigating field contamination of crops with aflatoxins in Uganda.
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Affiliation(s)
- Godfrey Wokorach
- Department of Plants and Crops, Campus Schoonmeersen Building C, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Valentin Vaerwyckweg 1, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium; (G.W.); (S.L.); (K.A.)
- Multifunctional Research Laboratories, Gulu University, Gulu P.O. Box 166, Uganda; (A.L.); (S.A.K.); (R.E.)
| | - Sofie Landschoot
- Department of Plants and Crops, Campus Schoonmeersen Building C, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Valentin Vaerwyckweg 1, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium; (G.W.); (S.L.); (K.A.)
| | - Amerida Lakot
- Multifunctional Research Laboratories, Gulu University, Gulu P.O. Box 166, Uganda; (A.L.); (S.A.K.); (R.E.)
| | - Sidney Arihona Karyeija
- Multifunctional Research Laboratories, Gulu University, Gulu P.O. Box 166, Uganda; (A.L.); (S.A.K.); (R.E.)
| | - Kris Audenaert
- Department of Plants and Crops, Campus Schoonmeersen Building C, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Valentin Vaerwyckweg 1, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium; (G.W.); (S.L.); (K.A.)
| | - Richard Echodu
- Multifunctional Research Laboratories, Gulu University, Gulu P.O. Box 166, Uganda; (A.L.); (S.A.K.); (R.E.)
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Gulu University, Gulu P.O. Box 166, Uganda
| | - Geert Haesaert
- Department of Plants and Crops, Campus Schoonmeersen Building C, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Valentin Vaerwyckweg 1, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium; (G.W.); (S.L.); (K.A.)
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5
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Vita V, Franchino C, Iammarino M, De Pace R. Aflatoxins contamination in nuts for direct human consumption: analytical findings from three years of official control in Italy. Int J Food Sci Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/ijfs.15723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Valeria Vita
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Puglia e della Basilicata Via Manfredonia 20 71121 Foggia Italy
| | - Cinzia Franchino
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Puglia e della Basilicata Via Manfredonia 20 71121 Foggia Italy
| | - Marco Iammarino
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Puglia e della Basilicata Via Manfredonia 20 71121 Foggia Italy
| | - Rita De Pace
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Puglia e della Basilicata Via Manfredonia 20 71121 Foggia Italy
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6
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Sserumaga JP, Wagacha JM, Biruma M, Mutegi CK. Contamination of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) with Aspergillus section Flavi communities and aflatoxin at the post-harvest stage. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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7
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Performance Evaluation of an Inflatable Solar Dryer for Maize and the Effect on Product Quality Compared with Direct Sun Drying. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/app11157074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Maize is an important staple in Africa, which necessitates immediate drying to preserve the postharvest quality. The traditional drying of maize in the open sun is prone to adverse weather and extraneous contamination. In this study, the drying performance of an inflatable solar dryer (ISD) was compared to direct sun drying (DSD) in Gombe Town, Wakiso District (Uganda) by analysing the moisture content, yeasts, moulds, aflatoxin, and colour. The maximum temperature inside the ISD reached 63.7 °C and averaged 7 °C higher than the ambient temperature. Maize was dried using both methods to a moisture content below 14% after two days. In one of the received maize lots that was already heavily contaminated after harvest, drying with DSD and ISD reduced the aflatoxin content from 569.6 µg kg−1 to 345.5 µg kg−1 and 299.2 µg kg−1, respectively. Although the drying performance in terms of drying time and product quality regarding colour, yeast, and mould was similar for both drying methods, the advantage of ISD in reducing the risk of spoilage due to sudden rain is obvious. A strategy for the early detection of aflatoxins in maize is recommended to avoid contaminated maize in the food chain.
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8
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Gard C, Kolich Chong MA, Sawadogo YA, Moreau L. Plant addition impact on aflatoxin
B1
levels, physico‐chemical, nutritional, and sensory properties of fried peanut biscuits. J Food Saf 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/jfs.12894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Camille Gard
- Institute of Life Technologies, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Western Switzerland Valais (HES‐SO Valais‐Wallis) Sion Switzerland
| | - Maria Alejandra Kolich Chong
- Institute of Life Technologies, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Western Switzerland Valais (HES‐SO Valais‐Wallis) Sion Switzerland
| | - Yamkaye Aïcha Sawadogo
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology University Joseph KI‐ZERBO Ouagadougou Burkina Faso
| | - Lydie Moreau
- Institute of Life Technologies, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Western Switzerland Valais (HES‐SO Valais‐Wallis) Sion Switzerland
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9
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Wokorach G, Landschoot S, Anena J, Audenaert K, Echodu R, Haesaert G. Mycotoxin profile of staple grains in northern Uganda: Understanding the level of human exposure and potential risks. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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10
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Zitomer NC, Awuor AO, Widdowson MA, Daniel JH, Sternberg MR, Rybak ME, Mbidde EK. Human aflatoxin exposure in Uganda: Estimates from a subset of the 2011 Uganda AIDS indicator survey (UAIS). Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2020; 38:136-147. [PMID: 33216708 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2020.1825826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Aflatoxins are carcinogenic mycotoxins that contaminate a variety of crops worldwide. Acute exposure can cause liver failure, and chronic exposure can lead to stunting in children and liver cancer in adults. We estimated aflatoxin exposure across Uganda by measuring a serum biomarker of aflatoxin exposure in a subsample from the 2011 Uganda AIDS Indicator Survey, a nationally representative survey of HIV prevalence, and examined its association with geographic, demographic, and socioeconomic variables. We analysed a subsample of 985 serum specimens selected among HIV-negative participants from 10 survey-defined geographic regions for serum aflatoxin B1-lysine (AFB1-lys) by use of isotope dilution LC-MS/MS and calculated results normalised to serum albumin. We used statistical techniques for censored data to estimate geometric means (GMs), standard deviations, and percentiles. We detected serum AFB1-lys in 71.7% of specimens (LOD = 0.5 pg/mg albumin). Unadjusted GM AFB1-lys (pg/mg albumin) was 1.33 (95% CI: 1.21-1.47). Serum AFB1-lys was higher in males (GM: 1.57; 95% CI: 1.38-1.80) vs. females (GM: 1.12; 95% CI: 0.97-1.30) (P = .0019), and higher in persons residing in urban settings (GM: 2.83; 95% CI: 2.37-3.37) vs. rural (GM: 1.10; 95% CI: 0.99-1.23) (P < .0001). When we used a multivariable censored regression model to assess confounding and interactions among variables we found that survey region, gender, age, occupation, distance to marketplace, and number of meals per day were statistically significant predictors of aflatoxin exposure. While not nationally representative, our findings provide an improved understanding of the widespread burden of aflatoxin exposure throughout Uganda and identify key geographic, demographic, and socioeconomic factors that may modulate aflatoxin exposure risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas C Zitomer
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center for Environmental Health (NCEH) , Division of Laboratory Sciences (DLS), Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Abigael O Awuor
- CDC-Kenya, Center for Global Health (CGH) , Division of Global Health Protection, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Marc-Alain Widdowson
- CDC-Kenya, Center for Global Health (CGH) , Division of Global Health Protection, Nairobi, Kenya.,Institute of Tropical Medicine , Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Johnni H Daniel
- CDC, NCEH, Division of Environmental Health Hazards & Health Effects , Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Maya R Sternberg
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center for Environmental Health (NCEH) , Division of Laboratory Sciences (DLS), Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Michael E Rybak
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center for Environmental Health (NCEH) , Division of Laboratory Sciences (DLS), Atlanta, Georgia
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Massomo SM. Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxin contamination in the maize value chain and what needs to be done in Tanzania. SCIENTIFIC AFRICAN 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.sciaf.2020.e00606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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12
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Nakavuma JL, Kirabo A, Bogere P, Nabulime MM, Kaaya AN, Gnonlonfin B. Awareness of mycotoxins and occurrence of aflatoxins in poultry feeds and feed ingredients in selected regions of Uganda. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD CONTAMINATION 2020. [DOI: 10.1186/s40550-020-00079-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Background
Aflatoxins are a category of mycotoxins produced by certain molds naturally occurring as food and feed contaminants with toxic effects to both animals and humans. In Uganda, previous studies on aflatoxins mainly considered human foods, but scarce information exists for animal feeds. The study aimed at establishing the current status of aflatoxins contamination of poultry feeds, level of awareness and the existing technological challenges and innovations to mycotoxin control in Uganda.
Method
Mycotoxin awareness, predisposing factors and existing strategies for managing mycotoxin contamination were investigated through focus group discussions and questionnaires with selected processors and farmers. Poultry feed and feed ingredient samples were collected and analyzed for total aflatoxins using VICAM Fluorimeter procedure for foods and animal feeds.
Results
Majority of the farmers and processors (> 50%) had limited knowledge about aflatoxins; contamination predisposing factors; dangers to animals and humans; and mitigation strategies. The study further revealed poor feed and feed ingredients handling and storage practices that predispose to mold/aflatoxin contamination. Forty feed samples from feed processing plants had aflatoxins in the range 7.5 ± 0.71 to 393.5 ± 19.09 parts per billion (ppb) with only twelve samples being within the generally acceptable limits of 20 ppb as recommended by the Food and Agricultural Organisation and the United States Federal Department of Agriculture. Additionally, all 27 feed samples obtained from the farmers had aflatoxins in the range of 19.0 ± 1.41 to 188.5 ± 2.12 ppb and were above the acceptable limit. Generally, broiler feeds were the most contaminated with aflatoxins. Of the feed ingredients tested, silver fish (Rastrineobola argentea, locally known as “mukene”) had the least concentration (8.7 ± 3.18 ppb) of aflatoxins while maize bran had the highest level of contamination, 103.3 ± 22.98 ppb.
Conclusion
Given the lack of awareness and the high prevalence of aflatoxin contaminated poultry feeds and feed ingredients in Uganda, a higher risk for carryover of the toxins into the animal products for human consumption exist. Hence, the need for comprehensive establishment of the prevention, control and surveillance strategies for reducing mycotoxins in foods.
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Benkerroum N. Aflatoxins: Producing-Molds, Structure, Health Issues and Incidence in Southeast Asian and Sub-Saharan African Countries. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:E1215. [PMID: 32070028 PMCID: PMC7068566 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17041215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2020] [Revised: 02/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
This review aims to update the main aspects of aflatoxin production, occurrence and incidence in selected countries, and associated aflatoxicosis outbreaks. Means to reduce aflatoxin incidence in crops were also presented, with an emphasis on the environmentally-friendly technology using atoxigenic strains of Aspergillus flavus. Aflatoxins are unavoidable widespread natural contaminants of foods and feeds with serious impacts on health, agricultural and livestock productivity, and food safety. They are secondary metabolites produced by Aspergillus species distributed on three main sections of the genus (section Flavi, section Ochraceorosei, and section Nidulantes). Poor economic status of a country exacerbates the risk and the extent of crop contamination due to faulty storage conditions that are usually suitable for mold growth and mycotoxin production: temperature of 22 to 29 °C and water activity of 0.90 to 0.99. This situation paralleled the prevalence of high liver cancer and the occasional acute aflatoxicosis episodes that have been associated with these regions. Risk assessment studies revealed that Southeast Asian (SEA) and Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries remain at high risk and that, apart from the regulatory standards revision to be more restrictive, other actions to prevent or decontaminate crops are to be taken for adequate public health protection. Indeed, a review of publications on the incidence of aflatoxins in selected foods and feeds from countries whose crops are classically known for their highest contamination with aflatoxins, reveals that despite the intensive efforts made to reduce such an incidence, there has been no clear tendency, with the possible exception of South Africa, towards sustained improvements. Nonetheless, a global risk assessment of the new situation regarding crop contamination with aflatoxins by international organizations with the required expertise is suggested to appraise where we stand presently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noreddine Benkerroum
- Department of Food Science and Agricultural Chemistry, MacDonald Campus, McGill University, 21111 Lakeshore, Ste Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, H9X 3V9, Canada
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14
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Complicated interactions between bio-adsorbents and mycotoxins during mycotoxin adsorption: Current research and future prospects. Trends Food Sci Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2019.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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15
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Omara T, Nassazi W, Omute T, Awath A, Laker F, Kalukusu R, Musau B, Nakabuye BV, Kagoya S, Otim G, Adupa E. Aflatoxins in Uganda: An Encyclopedic Review of the Etiology, Epidemiology, Detection, Quantification, Exposure Assessment, Reduction, and Control. Int J Microbiol 2020; 2020:4723612. [PMID: 31998379 PMCID: PMC6970494 DOI: 10.1155/2020/4723612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2019] [Revised: 11/01/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Uganda is an agrarian country where farming employs more than 60% of the population. Aflatoxins remain a scourge in the country, unprecedentedly reducing the nutritional and economic value of agricultural foods. This review was sought to synthetize the country's major findings in relation to the mycotoxins' etiology, epidemiology, detection, quantification, exposure assessment, control, and reduction in different matrices. Electronic results indicate that aflatoxins in Uganda are produced by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus and have been reported in maize, sorghum, sesame, beans, sunflower, millet, peanuts, and cassava. The causes and proliferation of aflatoxigenic contamination of Ugandan foods have been largely due to poor pre-, peri-, and postharvest activities, poor government legislation, lack of awareness, and low levels of education among farmers, entrepreneurs, and consumers on this plague. Little diet diversity has exacerbated the risk of exposure to aflatoxins in Uganda because most of the staple foods are aflatoxin-prone. On the detection and control, these are still marginal, though some devoted scholars have devised and validated a sensitive portable device for on-site aflatoxin detection in maize and shown that starter cultures used for making some cereal-based beverages have the potential to bind aflatoxins. More efforts should be geared towards awareness creation and vaccination against hepatitis B and hepatitis A to reduce the risk of development of liver cancer among the populace.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy Omara
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, School of Biological and Physical Sciences, Moi University, Uasin Gishu County, Kesses, P.O. Box 3900-30100, Academic Highway, Eldoret, Kenya
- Department of Quality Control and Quality Assurance, Product Development Directory, AgroWays Uganda Limited, Plot 34-60 Kyabazinga Way, P.O. Box 1924, Jinja, Uganda
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Kyambogo University, P.O. Box 1, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Winfred Nassazi
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, School of Biological and Physical Sciences, Moi University, Uasin Gishu County, Kesses, P.O. Box 3900-30100, Academic Highway, Eldoret, Kenya
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Kyambogo University, P.O. Box 1, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Tom Omute
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Health Sciences, Lira University, P.O. Box 1035, Lira, Uganda
| | - Aburu Awath
- Standards Department, Uganda National Bureau of Standards, Plot 2-12 Bypass Link, Bweyogerere Industrial and Business Park, P.O. Box 6329, Kampala, Uganda
- Department of Food Technology and Nutrition, School of Food Technology, Nutrition and Bioengineering, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Fortunate Laker
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Kyambogo University, P.O. Box 1, Kampala, Uganda
- Department of Quality Control and Quality Assurance, Leading Distillers Uganda Limited, Plot 3382/83, Buloba, P.O. Box 12369, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Raymond Kalukusu
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Kyambogo University, P.O. Box 1, Kampala, Uganda
- Department of Quality Control and Quality Assurance, Leading Distillers Uganda Limited, Plot 3382/83, Buloba, P.O. Box 12369, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Bashir Musau
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Kyambogo University, P.O. Box 1, Kampala, Uganda
- Department of Quality Control and Quality Assurance, Leading Distillers Uganda Limited, Plot 3382/83, Buloba, P.O. Box 12369, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Brenda Victoria Nakabuye
- Department of Quality Control and Quality Assurance, Leading Distillers Uganda Limited, Plot 3382/83, Buloba, P.O. Box 12369, Kampala, Uganda
- Department of Food Processing Technology, Faculty of Science, Kyambogo University, P.O. Box 1, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Sarah Kagoya
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Kyambogo University, P.O. Box 1, Kampala, Uganda
- Department of Quality Control and Quality Assurance, Product Development Directory, Sweets and Confectionaries Section, Kakira Sugar Limited, Jinja-Iganga Highway, P.O. Box 121, Jinja, Uganda
| | - George Otim
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Kyambogo University, P.O. Box 1, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Eddie Adupa
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Kyambogo University, P.O. Box 1, Kampala, Uganda
- Department of Quality Control and Quality Assurance, Abacus Parenteral Drugs Limited, Block 191, Plot 114, Kinga, Mukono, P.O. Box 31376, Kampala, Uganda
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