Axial ligands tailoring the ORR activity of cobalt porphyrin

Iron Porphyrin-Based Composites for Electrocatalytic Oxygen Reduction Reactions

The oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) is one of the most critical reactions in energy conversion systems, and it facilitates the efficient conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy, which is necessary for modern technology. Developing efficient and cost-effective catalysts for ORRs is crucial for advancing and effectively applying renewable energy technologies such as fuel cells, metal-air batteries, and electrochemical sensors. In recent years, iron porphyrin-based composites have emerged as ideal catalysts for facilitating effective ORRs due to their unique structural characteristics, abundance, advances in synthesis, and excellent catalytic properties, which mimic natural enzymatic systems. However, many articles have focused on reviewing porphyrin-based frameworks or metalloporphyrins in general, necessitating research specifically addressing iron porphyrin. This review discusses iron porphyrin as an effective catalyst in ORRs. It provides a comprehensive knowledge of the application of iron porphyrin-based composites for electrocatalytic ORRs, focusing on their properties, synthesis, structural integration with conductive supports, catalytic mechanism, and efficacy. This review also discusses the challenges of applying iron porphyrin-based composites and provides recommendations to address these challenges.

The "Pull Effect" of a Hanging ZnII on Improving the Four-Electron Oxygen Reduction Selectivity with Co Porphyrin

Due to the challenge of cleaving O-O bonds at single Co sites, mononuclear Co complexes typically show poor selectivity for the four-electron (4e-) oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). Herein, we report on selective 4e- ORR catalyzed by a Co porphyrin with a hanged ZnII ion. Inspired by Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase, we designed and synthesized 1-CoZn with a hanging ZnII at the second sphere of a Co porphyrin. Complex 1-CoZn is much more effective than its Zn-lacking analogues to catalyze the 4e- ORR in neutral aqueous solutions, giving an electron number of 3.91 per O2 reduction. With spectroscopic studies, the hanging ZnII was demonstrated to be able to facilitate the electron transfer from CoII to O2, through an electronic "pull effect", to give CoIII-superoxo. Theoretical studies further suggested that this "pull effect" plays crucial roles in assisting O-O bond cleavage. This work is significant to present a new strategy of hanging a ZnII to improve O2 activation and O-O bond cleavage.

Boosting the Electrocatalytic Oxygen Reduction Activity of MnN4-Doped Graphene by Axial Halogen Ligand Modification

Exploring highly active electrocatalysts as platinum (Pt) substitutes for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) remains a significant challenge. In this work, single Mn embedded nitrogen-doped graphene (MnN4) with and without halogen ligands (F, Cl, Br, and I) modifying were systematically investigated by density functional theory (DFT) calculations. The calculated results indicated that these ligands can transform the dyz and dxz orbitals of Mn atom in MnN4 near the Fermi-level into dz2 orbital, and shift the d-band center away from the Fermi-level to reduce the adsorption capacity for reaction intermediates, thus enhancing the ORR catalytic activity of MnN4. Notably, Br and I modified MnN4 respectively with the lowest overpotentials of 0.41 and 0.39 V, possess superior ORR catalytic activity. This work is helpful for comprehensively understanding the ligand modification mechanism of single-atom catalysts and develops highly active ORR electrocatalysts.

Selective Electrochemical Oxygen Reduction to Hydrogen Peroxide by Confinement of Cobalt Porphyrins in a Metal-Organic Framework

Sustainable alternatives for the energy intensive synthesis of H2O2 are necessary. Molecular cobalt catalysts show potential but are typically restricted by undesired bimolecular pathways leading to the breakdown of both H2O2 and the catalyst. The confinement of cobalt porphyrins in the PCN-224 metal-organic framework leads to an enhanced selectivity towards H2O2 and stability of the catalyst. Consequently, oxygen can now be selectively reduced to hydrogen peroxide with a stable conversion for at least 5 h, illustrating the potential of catalysts confined in MOFs to increase the selectivity and stability of electrocatalytic conversions.

Advances on Axial Coordination Design of Single-Atom Catalysts for Energy Electrocatalysis: A Review

Single-atom catalysts (SACs) have garnered increasingly growing attention in renewable energy scenarios, especially in electrocatalysis due to their unique high efficiency of atom utilization and flexible electronic structure adjustability. The intensive efforts towards the rational design and synthesis of SACs with versatile local configurations have significantly accelerated the development of efficient and sustainable electrocatalysts for a wide range of electrochemical applications. As an emergent coordination avenue, intentionally breaking the planar symmetry of SACs by adding ligands in the axial direction of metal single atoms offers a novel approach for the tuning of both geometric and electronic structures, thereby enhancing electrocatalytic performance at active sites. In this review, we briefly outline the burgeoning research topic of axially coordinated SACs and provide a comprehensive summary of the recent advances in their synthetic strategies and electrocatalytic applications. Besides, the challenges and outlooks in this research field have also been emphasized. The present review provides an in-depth and comprehensive understanding of the axial coordination design of SACs, which could bring new perspectives and solutions for fine regulation of the electronic structures of SACs catering to high-performing energy electrocatalysis.

Creating Conjugated C-C Bonds between Commercial Carbon Electrode and Molecular Catalyst for Oxygen Reduction to Hydrogen Peroxide

Immobilizing molecular catalysts on electrodes is vital for electrochemical applications. However, creating robust electrode-catalyst interactions while maintaining good catalytic performance and rapid electron transfer is challenging. Here, without introducing any foreign elements, we show a bottom-up synthetic approach of constructing the conjugated C-C bond between the commercial Vulcan carbon electrode and an organometallic catalyst. Characterization results from FTIR, XPS, aberration-corrected TEM and EPR confirmed the successful and uniform heterogenization of the complex. The synthesized Vulcan-LN4 -Co catalyst is highly active and selective in the oxygen reduction reaction in neutral media, showing an 80 % hydrogen peroxide selectivity and a 0.72 V (vs. RHE) onset potential which significantly outperformed the homogenous counterpart. Based on single-crystal XRD and NMR data, we built a model for density functional theory calculations which showed a nearly optimal binding energy for the *OOH intermediate. Our results show that the direct conjugated C-C bonding is an effective approach for heterogenizing molecular catalysts on carbon, opening new opportunities for employing molecular catalysts in electrochemical applications.

Contracted Fe-N5-C11 Sites in Single-Atom Catalysts Boosting Catalytic Performance for Oxygen Reduction Reaction

Promoting the catalyst performance for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in energy conversion devices through controlled manipulation of the structure of catalytic active sites has been a major challenge. In this work, we prepared Fe-N-C single-atom catalysts (SACs) with Fe-N₅ active sites and found that the catalytic activity of the catalyst with shrinkable Fe-N₅-C₁₁ sites for ORR was significantly improved compared with the catalyst bearing normal Fe-N₅-C₁₂ sites. The catalyst C@PVI-(TPC)Fe-800, prepared by pyrolyzing an axial-imidazole-coordinated iron corrole precursor, exhibited positive shifted half-wave potential (E_1/2 = 0.89 V vs RHE) and higher peak power density (P_max = 129 mW/cm²) than the iron porphyrin-derived counterpart C@PVI-(TPP)Fe-800 (E_1/2 = 0.81 V, P_max = 110 mW/cm²) in 0.1 M KOH electrolyte and Zn-air batteries, respectively. X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) analysis of C@PVI-(TPC)Fe-800 revealed a contracted Fe-N₅-C₁₁ structure with iron in a higher oxidation state than the porphyrin-derived Fe-N₅-C₁₂ counterpart. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations demonstrated that C@PVI-(TPC)Fe-800 possesses a higher HOMO energy level than C@PVI-(TPP)Fe-800, which can increase its electron-donating ability and thus help achieve enhanced O₂ adsorption as well as O-O bond activation. This work provides a new approach to tune the active site structure of SACs with unique contracted Fe-N₅-C₁₁ sites that remarkably promote the catalyst performance, suggesting significant implications for catalyst design in energy conversion devices.

Ultrasensitive Multiplex Imaging of Cell Surface Proteins via Core-Shell Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering Nanoprobes

Cell surface proteins, as important components of biological membranes, cover a wide range of important markers of diseases and even cancers. In this regard, precise detection of their expression levels is of crucial importance for both cancer diagnosis and the development of responsive therapeutic strategies. Herein, a size-controlled core-shell Au@ Copper(II) benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxylate (Au@Cu-BTC) nanomaterial was synthesized for specific and simultaneous imaging of multiple protein expression levels on cell membranes. The porous shell of Cu-BTC constructed on Au nanoparticles enabled effective loading of Raman reporter molecules, followed by further modification of the targeting moieties, which equipped the nanoprobe with good specificity and stability. Additionally, given the flexibility of the types of Raman reporter molecules available for loading, the nanoprobes were also demonstrated with good multichannel imaging capabilities. Ultimately, the present strategy of electromagnetic and chemical dual Raman scattering enhancement was successfully applied for the simultaneous detection of varied proteins on cell surfaces with high sensitivity and accuracy. The proposed nanomaterial holds promising applications in biosensing and therapeutic fields, which could not only provide a general strategy for the synthesis of metal-organic framework-based core-shell surface-enhanced Raman scattering nanoprobes but also enable further utilization in multitarget and multichannel cell imaging.

CO2 to CO Electroreduction, Electrocatalytic H2 Evolution, and Catalytic Degradation of Organic Dyes Using a Co(II) meso-Tetraarylporphyrin

The meso-tetrakis(4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)porphyrinato cobalt(II) complex [Co(TMFPP)] was synthesised in 93% yield. The compound was studied by 1H NMR, UV-visible absorption, and photoluminescence spectroscopy. The optical band gap Eg was calculated to 2.15 eV using the Tauc plot method and a semiconducting character is suggested. Cyclic voltammetry showed two fully reversible reduction waves at E1/2 = -0.91 V and E1/2 = -2.05 V vs. SCE and reversible oxidations at 0.30 V and 0.98 V representing both metal-centred (Co(0)/Co(I)/Co(II)/Co(III)) and porphyrin-centred (Por2-/Por-) processes. [Co(TMFPP)] is a very active catalyst for the electrochemical formation of H2 from DMF/acetic acid, with a Faradaic Efficiency (FE) of 85%, and also catalysed the reduction of CO2 to CO with a FE of 90%. Moreover, the two triarylmethane dyes crystal violet and malachite green were decomposed using H2O2 and [Co(TMFPP)] as catalyst with an efficiency of more than 85% in one batch.

Axial Ligand-Engineered Single-Atom Catalysts with Boosted Enzyme-Like Activity for Sensitive Immunoassay

Inspired by the key role of the coordination environment in the catalytic activity of enzymes, a rational design of the coordination structure of active sites at the atom scale is expected to develop high-performance enzyme-like catalysts. Here, we design a simple model system involving pentacoordinated and tetracoordinated Fe-N-C single-atom catalysts (named NG-Heme and G-Heme, respectively) to investigate structure-activity relationships. NG-Heme with axial ligand-engineered Fe sites exhibits superior enzyme-like activity to G-Heme, achieving the goal of vivid mimicking of the active sites of peroxidase. Experiments and theoretical studies reveal that the enhanced intrinsic catalytic activity originates from the "push effect" of the additional axial ligand, which can strengthen the interaction between the active site and the intermediate. Based on the outstanding catalytic activity, an NG-Heme-linked immunosorbent assay was constructed for colorimetric detection of carcinoembryonic antigen, exhibiting satisfactory sensitivity and feasibility in the analysis of clinical samples.

Axial Ligand Coordination Tuning of the Electrocatalytic Activity of Iron Porphyrin Electrografted onto Carbon Nanotubes for the Oxygen Reduction Reaction

The oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) is essential in many life processes and energy conversion systems. It is desirable to design transition metal molecular catalysts inspired by enzymatic oxygen activation/reduction processes as an alternative to noble-metal-Pt-based ORR electrocatalysts, especially in view point of fuel cell commercialization. We have fabricated bio-inspired molecular catalysts electrografted onto multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) in which 5,10,15,20-tetra(pentafluorophenyl) iron porphyrin (iron porphyrin FeF₂₀ TPP) is coordinated with covalently electrografted axial ligands varying from thiophene to imidazole on the MWCNTs' surface. The catalysts' electrocatalytic activity varied with the axial coordination environment (i. e., S-thiophene, N-imidazole, and O-carboxylate); the imidazole-coordinated catalyst MWCNTs-Im-FeF₂₀ TPP exhibited the highest ORR activity among the prepared catalysts. When MWCNT-Im-FeF₂₀ TPP was loaded onto the cathode of a zinc-air battery, an open-cell voltage (OCV) of 1.35 V and a maximum power density (P_max ) of 110 mW cm^-2 were achieved; this was higher than those of MWCNTs-Thi-FeF₂₀ TPP (OCV=1.30 V, P_max =100 mW cm^-2 ) and MWCNTs-Ox-FeF₂₀ TPP (OCV=1.28 V, P_max =86 mW cm^-2 ) and comparable with a commercial Pt/C catalyst (OCV=1.45 V, P_max =120 mW cm^-2 ) under similar experimental conditions. This study provides a time-saving method to prepare covalently immobilized molecular electrocatalysts on carbon-based materials with structure-performance correlation that is also applicable to the design of other electrografted catalysts for energy conversion.

Significantly boosted oxygen electrocatalysis with cooperation between cobalt and iron porphyrins

Developing electrocatalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) is of great importance. Herein, Co tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)porphyrin (Co-P) and Fe chloride tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)porphyrin (Fe-P) were loaded on carbon nanotubes (CNTs) for combining the electrocatalytic advantages of both Co-P and Fe-P. The resultant (Co-P)0.5(Fe-P)0.5@CNT composite displayed significantly boosted activity for the selective four-electron ORR with a half-wave potential of 0.80 V versus reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE) and for the OER with a potential of 1.65 V versus RHE to obtain 10 mA cm-2 current density in 0.1 M KOH. A Zn-air battery assembled from (Co-P)0.5(Fe-P)0.5@CNT exhibited a small charge-discharge voltage gap of 0.74 V at 2 mA cm-2, a high power density of 174.5 mW cm-2 and a good rechargeable stability (>120 cycles).

Substituents and the induced partial charge effects on cobalt porphyrins catalytic oxygen reduction reactions in acidic medium

Charge states at the catalytic interface can intensely alter the charge transfer mechanism and thus the oxygen reduction performance. Two symmetric cobalt porphyrins with electron deficient 2,1,3-benzothiadiazole (BTD) and electron-donating propeller-like triphenylamine (TPA) derivatives have been designed firstly, to rationally generate intramolecular partial charges, and secondly, to utilize the more exposed molecular orbitals on TPA for enhancing the charge transfer kinetics. The catalytic performance of the two electrocatalysts was examined for oxygen reduction reactions (ORR) in acidic electrolyte. It was found that BCP1/C with two BTD groups showed greater reduction potential but less limiting current density as compared to BCP2/C bearing BTD-TPA units. The reduced potential of BCP2/C was proposed to the introduction of the electron-donating ability of TPA, which may decrease the adsorption affinity of oxygen to the cobalt center. Both dipole-induced partial charge effect and the more exposed cation orbitals of the 3D structural TPA were proposed to contribute to the increased response current of BCP2/C. In addition, BCP2/C attained more than 80% of H₂O₂ generation in acidic solution, which may also relate to the structural effect. These findings may provide new insight into the structural design of organic electrocatalysts and deep understanding on the interfacial charge transfer mechanism for ORR.

Recent Developments in Metalloporphyrin Electrocatalysts for Reduction of Small Molecules: Strategies for Managing Electron and Proton Transfer Reactions

Porphyrins are archetypal ligands in inorganic chemistry. The last 10 years have seen important new advances in the use of metalloporphyrins as catalysts in the activation and reduction of small molecules, in particular O₂ and CO₂ . Recent developments of new molecular designs, scaling relationships, and theoretical modeling of mechanisms have rapidly advanced the utility of porphyrins as electrocatalysts. This Minireview focuses on the summary and evaluation of recent developments of metalloporphyrin O₂ and CO₂ reduction electrocatalysts, with an emphasis on contrasting homogeneous and heterogeneous electrocatalysis. Comparisons for proposed reaction mechanisms are provided for both CO₂ and O₂ reduction, and ideas are proposed about how lessons from the last decade of research can lead to the development of practical, applied porphyrin-derived catalysts.

Porphyrin-based frameworks for oxygen electrocatalysis and catalytic reduction of carbon dioxide

The recent progress made on porphyrin-based frameworks and their applications in energy-related conversion technologies (e.g., ORR, OER and CO₂RR) and storage technologies (e.g., Zn–air batteries).

Enhanced Oxygen Reduction Reaction Performance Using Intermolecular Forces Coupled with More Exposed Molecular Orbitals of Triphenylamine in Co-porphyrin Electrocatalysts

Triphenylamine (TPA) has often been used as a building block to construct functional organic materials yet is rarely employed in oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) due to its strong electron-donating ability. This versatile segment bears a three-dimensional spatial structure whose effect has not been fully explored in catalytic systems. To this end, five symmetric cobalt porphyrins with carbazole and TPA derivatives have been synthesized and their ORR performance has been evaluated in acid medium. It was found that all compounds produced mainly hydrogen peroxide in oxygen reduction, with CP1 attaching benzyl derivatives and XCP4 possessing TPA-carbazole substituents at the meso-position of porphyrin, showing similar but more positive ORR potential as compared to the other analogues. Importantly, XCP4 achieved the greatest response current and the largest electron transfer numbers and H₂O₂ yields among the investigated molecules. Detailed electrochemical measurements suggested that the dipole-induced partial charges on the porphyrin in tandem with the more exposed molecular orbitals on TPA contributed to this enhancement, with the former attracting more protons to the affinity of reactive sites and the latter increasing the collision frequency between the electrocatalyst and H⁺ in solution. This is the first attempt to integrate the intermolecular forces with more exposed molecular orbitals in altering the electrochemical process.

Single molecule level studies of reversible ligand binding to metal porphyrins at the solution/solid interface

Ligands bind reversibly to metal porphyrins in processes such as molecular recognition, electron transport and catalysis. These chemically relevant processes are ubiquitous in biology and are important in technological applications. In this article, we focus on the current advances in ligand binding to metal porphyrin receptors noncovalently bound at the solution/solid interface. In particular, we restrict ourselves to studies at the single molecule level. Dynamics of the binding/dissociation process can be monitored by scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and can yield both qualitative and quantitative information about ligand binding affinity and the energetics that define a particular ligation reaction. Molecular and time dependent imaging can establish whether the process under study is at equilibrium. Ligand-concentration-dependent studies have been used to determine adsorption isotherms and thermodynamic data for processes occurring at the solution/solid interface. In several binding reactions, the solid support acted as an electron-donating fifth coordination site, thereby significantly changing the metal porphyrin receptor’s affinity for exogenous ligands. Supporting calculations provide insight into the metalloporphyrin/support and ligand–metalloporphyrin/support interactions and their energetics.

Oxygen Reduction Reaction at Penta-Coordinated Co Phthalocyanines

From the early 60s, Co complexes, especially Co phthalocyanines (CoPc) have been extensively studied as electrocatalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR). Generally, they promote the 2-electron reduction of O2 to give peroxide whereas the 4-electron reduction is preferred for fuel cell applications. Still, Co complexes are of interest because depending on the chemical environment of the Co metal centers either promote the 2-electron transfer process or the 4-electron transfer. In this study, we synthetized 3 different Co catalysts where Co is coordinated to 5 N atoms using CoN4 phthalocyanines with a pyridine axial linker anchored to carbon nanotubes. We tested complexes with electro-withdrawing or electro-donating residues on the N4 phthalocyanine ligand. The catalysts were characterized by EPR and XPS spectroscopy. Ab initio calculations, Koutecky-Levich extrapolation and Tafel plots confirm that the pyridine back ligand increases the Co-O2 binding energy, and therefore promotes the 4-electron reduction of O2. But the presence of electron withdrawing residues, in the plane of the tetra N atoms coordinating the Co, does not further increase the activity of the compounds because of pull-push electronic effects.

Synthesis of FeCo–N@N-doped carbon oxygen reduction catalysts via microwave-assisted ammoxidation

A core–shell structured FeCo–N@N-doped carbon derived from biomass wastes (sugarcane and palm kernel shell) is facilely prepared by hydrothermal carbonization and NH₃ microwave ammoxidation methods.

A dinuclear cobalt cluster as electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction reaction

Dinuclear metal clusters as metalloenzymes execute efficient catalytic activities in biological systems. Enlightened by this, a dinuclear {CoII 2} cluster was selected to survey its ORR (Oxygen Reduction Reaction) catalytic activities. The crystalline {CoII 2} possesses defined structure and potential catalytic active centers of {CoN4O2} sites, which was identified by X-ray single crystal diffraction, Raman and XPS. The appropriate supramolecular porosity combining abundant pyridinic-N and triazole-N sites of {CoII 2} catalyst synergistically benefit the ORR performance. As a result, this non-noble metal catalyst presents a nice ORR electrocatalytic activity and abides by a nearly 4-electron reduction pathway. Thus, this unpyrolyzed crystalline catalyst clearly provide precise active sites and the whole defined structural information, which can help researcher to design and fabricate efficient ORR catalysts to improve their activities. Considering the visible crystal structure, a single cobalt center-mediated catalytic mechanism was also proposed to elucidate the ORR process.