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Almazrouei MA, Kukucka J, Morgan RM, Levy I. Unpacking workplace stress and forensic expert decision-making: From theory to practice. Forensic Sci Int Synerg 2024; 8:100473. [PMID: 38737991 PMCID: PMC11087230 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsisyn.2024.100473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2024] [Revised: 04/18/2024] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 05/14/2024]
Abstract
Workplace stress can affect forensic experts' job satisfaction and performance, which holds financial and other implications for forensic service providers. Therefore, it is important to understand and manage workplace stress, but that is not simple or straightforward. This paper explores stress as a human factor that influences forensic expert decision-making. First, we identify and highlight three factors that mitigate decisions under stress conditions: nature of decision, individual differences, and context of decision. Second, we situate workplace stress in forensic science within the Challenge-Hindrance Stressor Framework. We argue that stressors in forensic science workplaces can have a positive or a negative impact, depending on the type, level, and context of stress. Developing an understanding of the stressors, their sources, and their possible impact can help forensic service providers and researchers to implement context-specific interventions to manage stress at work and optimize expert performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed A. Almazrouei
- Center for Neurocognition and Behavior, Wu Tsai Institute, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Jeff Kukucka
- Department of Psychology, Towson University, Towson, MD, USA
| | - Ruth M. Morgan
- Centre for the Forensic Sciences, University College London, London, UK
- Department of Security and Crime Science, University College London, London, UK
| | - Ifat Levy
- Center for Neurocognition and Behavior, Wu Tsai Institute, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
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2
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Martire KA, Chin JM, Davis C, Edmond G, Growns B, Gorski S, Kemp RI, Lee Z, Verdon CM, Jansen G, Lang T, Neal TM, Searston RA, Slocum J, Summersby S, Tangen JM, Thompson MB, Towler A, Watson D, Werrett MV, Younan M, Ballantyne KN. Understanding 'error' in the forensic sciences: A primer. Forensic Sci Int Synerg 2024; 8:100470. [PMID: 39005839 PMCID: PMC11240290 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsisyn.2024.100470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Revised: 04/02/2024] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024]
Abstract
This paper distils seven key lessons about 'error' from a collaborative webinar series between practitioners at Victoria Police Forensic Services Department and academics. It aims to provide the common understanding of error necessary to foster interdisciplinary dialogue, collaboration and research. The lessons underscore the inevitability, complexity and subjectivity of error, as well as opportunities for learning and growth. Ultimately, we argue that error can be a potent tool for continuous improvement and accountability, enhancing the reliability of forensic sciences and public trust. It is hoped the shared understanding provided by this paper will support future initiatives and funding for collaborative developments in this vital domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristy A. Martire
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales Sydney, Australia
| | | | - Carolyn Davis
- Major Crime Scene Unit, Victoria Police Forensic Services Department, Australia
| | - Gary Edmond
- School of Law, Society & Criminology, University of New South Wales Sydney, Australia
| | - Bethany Growns
- School of Psychology, Speech and Hearing, University of Canterbury, New Zealand
| | - Stacey Gorski
- Biological Sciences Group, Victoria Police Forensic Services Department, Australia
| | - Richard I. Kemp
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales Sydney, Australia
| | - Zara Lee
- Fingerprint Sciences Group, Victoria Police Forensic Services Department, Australia
| | | | - Gabrielle Jansen
- Morwell Forensic Hub, Victoria Police Forensic Services Department, Australia
| | - Tanya Lang
- Major Crime Scene Unit, Victoria Police Forensic Services Department, Australia
| | | | | | - Joshua Slocum
- Fingerprint Sciences Group, Victoria Police Forensic Services Department, Australia
| | - Stephanie Summersby
- Office of the Chief Forensic Scientist, Victoria Police Forensic Services Department, Australia
| | - Jason M. Tangen
- School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, Australia
| | - Matthew B. Thompson
- School of Psychology, Murdoch University, Australia
- Centre for Biosecurity and One Health, Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, Australia
| | - Alice Towler
- School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, Australia
| | - Darren Watson
- Ballistics Unit, Victoria Police Forensic Services Department, Australia
| | - Melissa V. Werrett
- Chemical Trace Unit, Chemical and Physical Sciences Group, Victoria Police Forensic Services Department, Australia
| | - Mariam Younan
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales Sydney, Australia
| | - Kaye N. Ballantyne
- Office of the Chief Forensic Scientist, Victoria Police Forensic Services Department, Australia
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3
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Knes AS, de Gruijter M, Zuidberg MC, de Poot CJ. CSI-CSI: Comparing several investigative approaches toward crime scene improvement. Sci Justice 2024; 64:63-72. [PMID: 38182314 DOI: 10.1016/j.scijus.2023.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Revised: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/07/2024]
Abstract
Crime scene investigations are highly complex environments that require the CSI to engage in complex decision-making. CSIs must rely on personal experience, context information, and scientific knowledge about the fundamental principles of forensic science to both find and correctly interpret ambiguous traces and accurately reconstruct a scene. Differences in CSI decision making can arise in multiple stages of a crime scene investigation. Given its crucial role in forensic investigation, CSI decision-making must be further studied to understand how differences may arise during the stages of a crime scene investigation. The following exploratory research project is a first step at comparing how crime scene investigations of violent robberies are conducted between 25 crime scene investigators from nine countries across the world. Through a mock crime scene and semi-structured interview, we observed that CSIs have adopted a variety of investigation approaches. The results show that CSIs have different working strategies and make different decisions when it comes to the construction of relevant hypotheses, their search strategy, and the collection of traces. These different decisions may, amongst other factors, be due to the use of prior information, a CSI's knowledge and experience, and the perceived goal of their investigation. We suggest the development of more practical guidelines to aid CSIs through a hypothetico-deductive reasoning process, where (a) CSIs are supported in the correct use of contextual information, (b) outside knowledge and expertise are integrated into this process, and (c) CSIs are guided in the evaluation of the utility of their traces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna S Knes
- Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies, University of Amsterdam, 1012WX, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Netherlands Forensic Institute, Laan van Ypenburg 6 2497 GB, The Hague, the Netherlands.
| | - Madeleine de Gruijter
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, Laan van Ypenburg 6 2497 GB, The Hague, the Netherlands.
| | - Matthijs C Zuidberg
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, Laan van Ypenburg 6 2497 GB, The Hague, the Netherlands.
| | - Christianne J de Poot
- Forensic Science Department, Amsterdam, University of Applied Sciences, Tafelbergweg 51 1105 BD, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vrij Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1105 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Police Academy, Arnhemseweg 348 7337 AC, Apeldoorn, the Netherlands.
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4
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Sessa F, Pomara C, Esposito M, Grassi P, Cocimano G, Salerno M. Indirect DNA Transfer and Forensic Implications: A Literature Review. Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:2153. [PMID: 38136975 PMCID: PMC10742555 DOI: 10.3390/genes14122153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Progress in DNA profiling techniques has made it possible to detect even the minimum amount of DNA at a crime scene (i.e., a complete DNA profile can be produced using as little as 100 pg of DNA, equivalent to only 15-20 human cells), leading to new defense strategies. While the evidence of a DNA trace is seldom challenged in court by a defendant's legal team, concerns are often raised about how the DNA was transferred to the location of the crime. This review aims to provide an up-to-date overview of the experimental work carried out focusing on indirect DNA transfer, analyzing each selected paper, the experimental method, the sampling technique, the extraction protocol, and the main results. Scopus and Web of Science databases were used as the search engines, including 49 papers. Based on the results of this review, one of the factors that influence secondary transfer is the amount of DNA shed by different individuals. Another factor is the type and duration of contact between individuals or objects (generally, more intimate or prolonged contact results in more DNA transfer). A third factor is the nature and quality of the DNA source. However, there are exceptions and variations depending on individual characteristics and environmental conditions. Considering that secondary transfer depends on multiple factors that interact with each other in unpredictable ways, it should be considered a complex and dynamic phenomenon that can affect forensic investigation in various ways, for example, placing a subject at a crime scene who has never been there. Correct methods and protocols are required to detect and prevent secondary transfer from compromising forensic evidence, as well as the correct interpretation through Bayesian networks. In this context, the definition of well-designed experimental studies combined with the use of new forensic techniques could improve our knowledge in this challenging field, reinforcing the value of DNA evidence in criminal trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Sessa
- Department of Medical, Surgical and Advanced Technologies “G.F. Ingrassia”, University of Catania, 95121 Catania, Italy; (C.P.); (M.S.)
| | - Cristoforo Pomara
- Department of Medical, Surgical and Advanced Technologies “G.F. Ingrassia”, University of Catania, 95121 Catania, Italy; (C.P.); (M.S.)
| | | | - Patrizia Grassi
- “Vittorio Emanuele” Hospital, University of Catania, 95121 Catania, Italy;
| | - Giuseppe Cocimano
- Department of Mental and Physical Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Campania “Vanvitelli”, 80121 Napoli, Italy;
| | - Monica Salerno
- Department of Medical, Surgical and Advanced Technologies “G.F. Ingrassia”, University of Catania, 95121 Catania, Italy; (C.P.); (M.S.)
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Robles M, Carew RM, Rando C, Nakhaeizadeh S, Morgan RM. Sex estimation from virtual models: exploring the potential of stereolithic 3D crania models for morphoscopic trait scoring. Forensic Sci Res 2023; 8:123-132. [PMID: 37621450 PMCID: PMC10445579 DOI: 10.1093/fsr/owad017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Modern computed tomography (CT) databases are becoming an accepted resource for the practice and development of identification methods in forensic anthropology. However, the utility of 3D models created using free and open-source visualization software such as 3D Slicer has not yet been thoroughly assessed for morphoscopic biological profiling methods where virtual methods of analysis are becoming more common. This paper presents a study that builds on the initial findings from Robles et al. (2020) to determine the feasibility of estimating sex on stereolithic (STL) 3D cranial models produced from CT scans from a modern, living UK population (n = 80) using equation 2 from the Walker's (2008) morphoscopic method. Kendall's coefficients of concordance (KCC) indicated substantial agreement using cranial features scores in an inter-observer test and a video-inter-observer test. Fleiss' Kappa scores showed moderate agreement (0.50) overall between inter-observer sex estimations, and for observer sex estimations in comparison to recorded sexes (0.56). It was found that novice users could virtually employ morphoscopic sex estimation methods effectively on STL 3D cranial models from modern individuals. This study also highlights the potential that digital databases of modern living populations can offer forensic anthropology. Key points First example of Walker's (2008) method applied to a living UK population.Open-source software is a valuable resource for crime reconstruction approaches.Male scoring bias was observed in method application.Forensic anthropologists would benefit from virtual anthropology training to use and interpret 3D models.Digital databases offer more ethical, diverse, modern populations for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madeline Robles
- UCL Department of Security and Crime Science, University College London, 35 Tavistock Square, London, UK
- UCL Centre for the Forensic Sciences, University College London, 35 Tavistock Square, London, UK
- School of Applied Sciences, College of Health, Science and Society, University of the West of England, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol, UK
| | - Rachael M Carew
- UCL Department of Security and Crime Science, University College London, 35 Tavistock Square, London, UK
- UCL Centre for the Forensic Sciences, University College London, 35 Tavistock Square, London, UK
| | - Carolyn Rando
- UCL Institute of Archaeology, University College London, 31-34 Gordon Square, London, UK
| | - Sherry Nakhaeizadeh
- UCL Department of Security and Crime Science, University College London, 35 Tavistock Square, London, UK
- UCL Centre for the Forensic Sciences, University College London, 35 Tavistock Square, London, UK
| | - Ruth M Morgan
- UCL Department of Security and Crime Science, University College London, 35 Tavistock Square, London, UK
- UCL Centre for the Forensic Sciences, University College London, 35 Tavistock Square, London, UK
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Carew RM, French J, Morgan RM. Drilling down into ethics: A thematic review of ethical considerations for the creation and use of 3D printed human remains in crime reconstruction. Sci Justice 2023; 63:330-342. [PMID: 37169458 DOI: 10.1016/j.scijus.2023.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Abstract
The existing literature contains some exploration of the ethics concerning human remains in forensic and virtual anthropology. However, previous work has stopped short of interrogating the underlying ethical concepts. The question of how people understand and apply these concepts in practice, and what it means to act ethically, remain underexplored. This thematic review explores the ethical considerations that contribute to the creation and use of 3D printed human remains for forensic purposes. The three main branches of ethical theory are outlined to explore how they may apply to forensic practice. Key themes relating to 3D printing human remains in forensic contexts were explored to better understand the ethics landscape, ethical challenges, and the current guidelines in place. Through this thematic review, nine ethics principles were identified as key principles for guiding best practice: anonymity, autonomy, beneficence, consent, context, justice, non-maleficence, proportionality, and transparency. It is suggested that these principles could be incorporated into adaptable guidelines going forward to support ethical practice. The findings also suggest that holistic ethics cognition training may have value in supporting forensic scientists in ethical decision-making, together with procedural and structural design that may promote best practice and reduce cognitive load.
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Salazar-Aguilar P, Zaror-Sánchez C, Fonseca GM. Forensic odontology: Wrong convictions, "bad apples" and "the innocence files". J Forensic Leg Med 2023; 96:102528. [PMID: 37099885 DOI: 10.1016/j.jflm.2023.102528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2023] [Revised: 03/04/2023] [Accepted: 04/15/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2023]
Abstract
Forensic odontology (FO) provides expert testimony; however, new criticism has identified FO as one of the fields that must strengthen its scientific foundations. The recent Netflix documentary titled "The Innocence Files", featuring wrongful convictions, dedicates three of its nine episodes almost exclusively to bite mark identification (BMI), one of the most questioned tests performed by FO. Although most of the FO fields have an undoubted utility in forensic and juridical context, only BMI has been questioned in recent years; the derogatory expression "Junk science" is used continuously in the documentary almost as a synonym for FO. We present a scoping review of cases reported in the US National Registry of Exonerations in which FO was false or misleading forensic evidence (F/MFE) leading to wrongful convictions. Although in the 26 cases identified the only declared F/MFE was the BMI (excluding any other type of dental expertise), only in 2 cases (7.69%) was F/MFE the sole contributing factor, and in 4 cases (15.38%) there was F/MFE plus three additional factors. Official misconduct was detected in 19 cases (73.08%) and perjury or false accusation in 16 cases (61.54%). It has already been mentioned how dangerous it is to consider FO as synonymous with "bite mark identification", or even to publicly provide incorrect or decontextualized information. This review shows that erroneous convictions have been exclusively in the field of BMI, and that FO encompasses much more than just BMI. The relationship between the media and forensic sciences has been strained. The perspective of the new culture of risk management in forensics is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulina Salazar-Aguilar
- Programa de Magister en Odontología, Facultad de Odontología, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile; Carrera de Odontología, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Temuco, Chile; Centro de Investigación en Odontología Legal y Forense (CIO), Facultad de Odontología, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
| | - Carlos Zaror-Sánchez
- Programa de Magister en Odontología, Facultad de Odontología, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile; Center for Research in Epidemiology, Economics and Oral Public Health (CIEESPO), Facultad de Odontología, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
| | - Gabriel M Fonseca
- Programa de Magister en Odontología, Facultad de Odontología, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile; Centro de Investigación en Odontología Legal y Forense (CIO), Facultad de Odontología, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile.
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Airlie M, Robertson J, Ma W, Airlie D, Brooks E. A novel application of deep learning to forensic hair analysis methodology. AUST J FORENSIC SCI 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/00450618.2022.2159064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Airlie
- Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Canberra, Bruce, ACT, Australia
- Major Crime Unit, Forensic Services Group, Queensland Police Service, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - James Robertson
- Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Canberra, Bruce, ACT, Australia
| | - Wanli Ma
- Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Canberra, Bruce, ACT, Australia
| | - David Airlie
- Global Engineering, Red Hat, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Elizabeth Brooks
- Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Canberra, Bruce, ACT, Australia
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de Roo RH, de Gruijter M, de Poot CJ, Limborgh JC, van den Hoven P. The added value of behavioural information in crime scene investigations. Forensic Sci Int Synerg 2022; 5:100290. [PMID: 36438911 PMCID: PMC9682345 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsisyn.2022.100290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Revised: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Forensic and behavioural science are often seen as two different disciplines. However, there is a growing realization that the two disciplines should be more strongly integrated. Incorporating psychological theories on human behaviour in forensic science could help solving investigative problems, especially at the crime scene. At the crime scene it is not just about applying scientific methods to analyse traces; these traces must first be perceived and categorized as relevant. At the crime scene, the behavioural perspective of an investigative psychologist could play an important role. In this study, we examine to what extent (1) investigative psychologists detect deviant behavioural cues compared to forensic examiners when investigating a crime scene, (2) forensic examiners can find the relevant traces that can be associated with this behaviour and (3) the availability of a psychological report highlighting these behavioural cues helps forensic examiners in finding more relevant traces. To this end, a total of 14 investigative psychologists and 40 forensic examiners investigated a virtual 3D mock crime scene. The results of this study show that investigative psychologists see significantly more deviant behavioural cues than forensic examiners, and that forensic examiners who receive a psychological report on these cues recognize and collect significantly more traces that can be linked to deviant behaviour and have a high evidential value than examiners who did not receive this information. However, the study also demonstrates that behavioural information is likely to be ignored when it contradicts existing beliefs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosanne H.D. de Roo
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, The Hague, the Netherlands
- Forensic Science Department, Amsterdam, University of Applied Sciences, Tafelbergweg 51, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Madeleine de Gruijter
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, The Hague, the Netherlands
- Forensic Science Department, Amsterdam, University of Applied Sciences, Tafelbergweg 51, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Christianne J. de Poot
- Forensic Science Department, Amsterdam, University of Applied Sciences, Tafelbergweg 51, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Josita C.M. Limborgh
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, The Hague, the Netherlands
- Forensic Science Department, Amsterdam, University of Applied Sciences, Tafelbergweg 51, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Paul van den Hoven
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, The Hague, the Netherlands
- Forensic Science Department, Amsterdam, University of Applied Sciences, Tafelbergweg 51, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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10
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Mantl NA, Nakhaeizadeh S, Watts R, Rando C, Morgan RM. Evaluating intuitive decision-making in non-metric sex estimation from the cranium: an exploratory study. AUST J FORENSIC SCI 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/00450618.2022.2104371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole A. Mantl
- Department of Security and Crime Science, University College London, London, UK
- Centre for Forensic Sciences, University College London, London, UK
- Institute of Archaeology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Sherry Nakhaeizadeh
- Department of Security and Crime Science, University College London, London, UK
- Centre for Forensic Sciences, University College London, London, UK
| | - Rebecca Watts
- Institute of Archaeology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Carolyn Rando
- Institute of Archaeology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Ruth M. Morgan
- Department of Security and Crime Science, University College London, London, UK
- Centre for Forensic Sciences, University College London, London, UK
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11
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Georgiou N, Morgan R, French J. The shifting narrative of uncertainty: a case for the coherent and consistent consideration of uncertainty in forensic science. AUST J FORENSIC SCI 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/00450618.2022.2104370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- N. Georgiou
- Department of Security and Crime Science, UCL, London, UK
| | - R.M. Morgan
- Department of Security and Crime Science, UCL, London, UK
| | - J.C. French
- Department of Security and Crime Science, UCL, London, UK
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12
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Zhang A, Bradford B, Morgan RM, Nakhaeizadeh S. Investigating the uses of mobile phone evidence in China criminal proceedings. Sci Justice 2022; 62:385-398. [PMID: 35598931 DOI: 10.1016/j.scijus.2022.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Revised: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Data from mobile phones are regularly used in the investigation of crime and court proceedings. Previously published research has primarily addressed technical issues or provided operational manuals for using forensic science evidence, rather than analysing human factors and the implementation of forensic tools in investigation settings. Moreover, previous research has focused almost entirely on western countries, and there is a dearth of research into the uses of forensic evidence in China. In this study, a review was carried out of court sentencing documents referring to mobile phone evidence in China over the period 2013-2018. Automated content analysis was used to identify the specific evidence types utilised and the sentencing outcome for each case. Results show that mobile phone evidence was used in 3.3% of criminal proceedings. Among various data types mentioned in criminal proceedings, call records sustained as the most frequently used type of data. After which, instant messaging tools (e.g. WeChat) are an increasing proportion of all mobile phone evidence, from 1% in 2015 to 25% in 2018. For cases that utilised mobile phone data, the analysis of instant messaging and online transaction tools is routine, with little variation in the use of each application (WeChat, Alipay, QQ) for investigations of different types of crime. However, in the majority of criminal cases, mobile phone data function as subsidiary evidence and posed limited impacts on verdict reached. The current findings indicate that a large amount of mobile phone evidence was transformed into other evidence formats or filtered out directly before court proceedings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aolan Zhang
- Institute for Global City Policing, Department of Security and Crime Science, University College London, 35 Tavistock Square, London WC1H 9EZ, UK; Centre for the Forensic Sciences, Department of Security and Crime Science, University College London, 35 Tavistock Square, London WC1H 9EZ, UK.
| | - Ben Bradford
- Institute for Global City Policing, Department of Security and Crime Science, University College London, 35 Tavistock Square, London WC1H 9EZ, UK
| | - Ruth M Morgan
- Centre for the Forensic Sciences, Department of Security and Crime Science, University College London, 35 Tavistock Square, London WC1H 9EZ, UK
| | - Sherry Nakhaeizadeh
- Centre for the Forensic Sciences, Department of Security and Crime Science, University College London, 35 Tavistock Square, London WC1H 9EZ, UK
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13
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Unboxing the digital forensic investigation process. Sci Justice 2022; 62:171-180. [DOI: 10.1016/j.scijus.2022.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Revised: 11/27/2021] [Accepted: 01/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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14
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Davidson M, Nakhaeizadeh S, Rando C. Cognitive bias and the order of examination in forensic anthropological non-metric methods: a pilot study. AUST J FORENSIC SCI 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/00450618.2021.1998625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marion Davidson
- Institute of Archaeology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Sherry Nakhaeizadeh
- Centre for the Forensic Sciences, University College London, London, UK
- Department of Security and Crime Science, University College London, London, UK
| | - Carolyn Rando
- Institute of Archaeology, University College London, London, UK
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15
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Carew RM, French J, Morgan RM. 3D forensic science: A new field integrating 3D imaging and 3D printing in crime reconstruction. Forensic Sci Int Synerg 2021; 3:100205. [PMID: 34746730 PMCID: PMC8556510 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsisyn.2021.100205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
3D techniques are increasingly being used by forensic scientists in crime reconstruction. The proliferation of 3D techniques, such as 3D imaging and printing being employed across the various stages of the forensic science process, means that the use of 3D should be considered as a distinct field within forensic science. '3D Forensic Science' ('3DFS') is therefore presented in this paper as a field that brings together a range of 3D techniques and approaches that have been developed within different areas of forensic science for achieving crime reconstructions and interpreting and presenting evidence. It is argued that by establishing this distinct field, defining its boundaries, and developing expertise, best practice and standards, the contribution of 3DFS to the criminal justice system can be maximised and the accuracy and robustness of crime reconstruction endeavours can be enhanced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachael M. Carew
- UCL Department of Security and Crime Science, University College London, 35 Tavistock Square, London, WC1H 9EZ, UK
- UCL Centre for the Forensic Sciences, University College London, 35 Tavistock Square, London, WC1H 9EZ, UK
| | - James French
- UCL Department of Security and Crime Science, University College London, 35 Tavistock Square, London, WC1H 9EZ, UK
- UCL Centre for the Forensic Sciences, University College London, 35 Tavistock Square, London, WC1H 9EZ, UK
| | - Ruth M. Morgan
- UCL Department of Security and Crime Science, University College London, 35 Tavistock Square, London, WC1H 9EZ, UK
- UCL Centre for the Forensic Sciences, University College London, 35 Tavistock Square, London, WC1H 9EZ, UK
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16
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Villavicencio-Queijeiro A, Loyzance C, García-Castillo Z, Suzuri-Hernández J, Castillo-Alanís A, López-Olvera P, López-Escobedo F. Development of an instrument for assessing the quality of forensic evidence and expert testimony from three feature-comparison methods: DNA, voice, and fingerprint analysis. J Forensic Sci 2021; 67:217-228. [PMID: 34596244 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.14898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Revised: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In a context of rising violence and long-lasting impunity, in 2008, Mexico's criminal justice system underwent a radical change from an inquisitorial model to an adversarial one, to make it more effective, transparent, and expeditious. The new system tasked judges with publicly determining the admissibility of forensic evidence, as well as assessing its technical quality and probative value-tasks for which they currently receive little to no training. With the aim of contributing to the consolidation of the adversarial model, a comparative framework-in the form of a checklist-of the analysis of fingerprints, DNA samples, and voice recordings was created. To do so, a review of the academic literature, published reports, and guidelines was performed. The collected data were synthesized and submitted to a panel of Mexican judges, who provided feedback on its adequacy. The framework focuses on the steps on which quality assurance of forensic evidence depends, organized in five discrete stages that span from the collection of samples at the scene of a crime to the presentation of evidence at trial, specifying the main technical criteria experts should state to allow a decision maker to examine its accuracy and reliability. Differences and commonalities among the three methods were identified, particularly in terms of how qualitative and quantitative analyses are performed in each. Besides its potential usefulness as an aid for judicial decision-making, the checklist could be a valuable resource for training programs aimed at judges, as well as quality assurance programs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Chantal Loyzance
- Ciencia Forense, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Zoraida García-Castillo
- Ciencia Forense, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Jiro Suzuri-Hernández
- Ciencia Forense, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Alejandra Castillo-Alanís
- Ciencia Forense, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Patricia López-Olvera
- Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Fernanda López-Escobedo
- Ciencia Forense, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, México
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17
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PRECEPT-4-Justice: A bias-neutralising framework for digital forensics investigations. Sci Justice 2021; 61:477-492. [PMID: 34482928 DOI: 10.1016/j.scijus.2021.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 06/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Software invisibly permeates our everyday lives: operating devices in our physical world (traffic lights and cars), effecting our business transactions and powering the vast World Wide Web. We have come to rely on such software to work correctly and efficiently. The generally accepted narrative is that any software errors that do occur can be traced back to a human operator's mistakes. Software engineers know that this is merely a comforting illusion. Software sometimes has bugs, which might lead to erratic performance: intermittently generating errors. The software, hardware and communication infrastructure can all introduce errors, which are often challenging to isolate and correct. Anomalies that manifest are certainly not always due to an operator's actions. When the general public and the courts believe the opposite, that errors are usually attributable to some human operator's actions, it is entirely possible for some hapless innocent individual to be blamed for anomalies and discrepancies whose actual source is a software malfunction. This is what occurred in the Post Office Horizon IT case, where unquestioning belief in the veracity of software-generated evidence led to a decade of wrongful convictions. We will use this case as a vehicle to demonstrate the way biases can influence investigations, and to inform the development of a framework to guide and inform objective digital forensics investigations. This framework, if used, could go some way towards neutralising biases and preventing similar miscarriages of justice in the future.
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18
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Woodman PA, Ballantyne KN, Julian R, Spiranovic C. The forensic examination of structural fires in Victoria, Australia: Decision-making processes and impact on judicial outcomes. Sci Justice 2021; 61:369-377. [PMID: 34172125 DOI: 10.1016/j.scijus.2021.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Revised: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/27/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
There is a body of published research that has evaluated the contribution of forensic science to the criminal justice system, but many disciplines of forensic science remain unexplored in this regard. The aim of this study was to examine the contribution that forensic fire examination services provide to criminal investigations and court processes in arson cases. Forensic fire examination services differ in a number of ways to the disciplines covered in previous research on the impact of forensic evidence on justice outcomes. Forensic fire examinations involve a combination of scene examination and laboratory analyses, and the results can provide critical evidence of whether an incident that has occurred is a criminal offence (i.e. whether a fire has occurred as the result of an act of arson). Forensic fire examination is also a discipline that has faced challenges and undergone development in recent decades regarding its scientific basis and the issue of contextual bias. In this study, data were collated for 273 structural fires that were examined by the forensic fire services in Victoria, Australia. In this jurisdiction, scene and laboratory forensic services are delivered within short time frames with a focus on providing impartial scientific and investigative services to assist criminal investigations conducted by police. The current dataset was highly skewed in terms of criminal justice outcomes and was not suitable for conducting the planned statistical analyses. Nonetheless, the pattern of findings obtained suggested that the inclusion of forensic evidence which supported the prosecution of arson may be associated with an increased likelihood of suspects being charged and defendants found guilty. Examination of the decision-making process of the forensic fire examiners has provided insight into the variety of evidence that is considered by forensic experts in reaching the important conclusion about the origin and cause of structural fires.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter A Woodman
- Tasmanian Institute of Law Enforcement Studies (TILES), University of Tasmania, Private Bag 22, Hobart, TAS 7001 Australia; Chemical & Physical Sciences Group, Victoria Police Forensic Services Department, 31 Forensic Drive, Macleod, VIC 3085 Australia.
| | - Kaye N Ballantyne
- Tasmanian Institute of Law Enforcement Studies (TILES), University of Tasmania, Private Bag 22, Hobart, TAS 7001 Australia; Office of the Chief Forensic Scientist, Victoria Police Forensic Services Department, 31 Forensic Drive, Macleod, VIC 3085 Australia
| | - Roberta Julian
- Tasmanian Institute of Law Enforcement Studies (TILES), University of Tasmania, Private Bag 22, Hobart, TAS 7001 Australia
| | - Caroline Spiranovic
- Tasmanian Institute of Law Enforcement Studies (TILES), University of Tasmania, Private Bag 22, Hobart, TAS 7001 Australia; Faculty of Law, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 89, Hobart, TAS 7001 Australia
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19
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Airlie M, Robertson J, Krosch MN, Brooks E. Contemporary issues in forensic science-Worldwide survey results. Forensic Sci Int 2021; 320:110704. [PMID: 33581657 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2021.110704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Revised: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Forensic science continues to be openly challenged and criticized. The aim of this study was to gain an understanding of forensic workplaces and the perceived current and potential future issues from forensic scientists via a detailed survey. An online survey was designed and disseminated to forensic practitioners and researchers worldwide. 544 participants from more than 20 countries took part in the survey. Participants personally rated ten forensic disciplines with subjective methodologies, responded on a five-point Likert scale to 22 statements that addressed subjectivity and objectivity, validation and proficiency testing and error and bias and answered demographic questions relating to their workplace type, level of experience and qualifications. Participants also commented freely on forensic issues specifically important to them. The purpose of this paper is to provide the survey results and consensuses captured on several key issues. Overall participants believed forensic science must be valid and reliable and supported development of objective methodologies, validation and further investigation into the application statistics, use of error rates and implications of cognitive bias. Participants raised consensus concerns with the provision of expert evidence and other broader issues. This information and understanding from the forensic front line are essential for forensic science moving forward to best address current challenges and criticisms not only of forensic evidence for the court but for applications of forensic science beyond the courtroom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Airlie
- University of Canberra, National Centre for Forensic Studies, Faculty of Science and Technology, 11 Kirinari Street, Bruce, ACT, 2617, Australia; Forensic Services Group, Queensland Police Service, Level 4, 200 Roma Street, Brisbane, Queensland, 4000, Australia.
| | - James Robertson
- University of Canberra, National Centre for Forensic Studies, Faculty of Science and Technology, 11 Kirinari Street, Bruce, ACT, 2617, Australia
| | - Matt N Krosch
- Forensic Services Group, Queensland Police Service, Level 4, 200 Roma Street, Brisbane, Queensland, 4000, Australia
| | - Elizabeth Brooks
- University of Canberra, National Centre for Forensic Studies, Faculty of Science and Technology, 11 Kirinari Street, Bruce, ACT, 2617, Australia
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20
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Thompson TJU, Collings AJ, Earwaker H, Horsman G, Nakhaeizadeh S, Parekh U. Forensic undergraduate education during and after the COVID-19 imposed lockdown: Strategies and reflections from India and the UK. Forensic Sci Int 2020; 316:110500. [PMID: 32927413 PMCID: PMC7474872 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2020.110500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- T J U Thompson
- School of Health & Life Sciences, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, TS1 3BX, UK.
| | - Amber J Collings
- School of Health & Life Sciences, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, TS1 3BX, UK.
| | - Helen Earwaker
- Institute of Criminal Justice Studies, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, PO1 2UP, UK.
| | - Graeme Horsman
- School of Health & Life Sciences, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, TS1 3BX, UK.
| | - Sherry Nakhaeizadeh
- Department of Security and Crime Science, UCL, Centre for the Forensic Sciences, 35 Tavistock Square, London, WC1H 9EZ, UK.
| | - Utsav Parekh
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Pramukhswami Medical College, Gujarat, India.
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21
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Curate F, Mestre F, Garcia SJ. Sex assessment with the radius in Portuguese skeletal populations (late 19th - early to mid 20th centuries). Leg Med (Tokyo) 2020; 48:101790. [PMID: 33036877 DOI: 10.1016/j.legalmed.2020.101790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 09/15/2020] [Accepted: 09/24/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The assessment of sex is of immense relevance in the analysis of human skeletal remains, as other parameters of the biological profile are usually sex-specific (e.g., age at death or stature). The radius can be used to estimate sex when more dimorphic bones are not available or in the case of incomplete and fragmentary remains. Ten radius measurements collected in a sample of 364 individuals (166 females and 198 males) from the Coimbra Identified Skeletal Collection (late 19th - early 20th centuries) were employed to generate univariable and multivariable models for sex estimation. All models were evaluated with a 10-fold cross-validation method and an independent holdout sample from the Luís Lopes Collection (late 19th - mid 20th centuries) encompassing 50 individuals (25 females and 25 males). Univariable models show an accuracy ranging from 77.7% to 89.8% (cross-validation), and from 70% to 86% (test sample), while accuracy in the multivariable models varies from 88.7% to 93.4% (cross-validation), and 84.0% to 90.0% (test sample). Results suggest that measurements of the radius are useful to develop standard guidelines for sex estimation of anonymous skeletal remains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Curate
- Research Centre for Anthropology and Health, Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal; Laboratory of Forensic Anthropology, Centre for Functional Ecology, Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal; School of Technology, Polytechnic Institute of Tomar, Tomar, Portugal.
| | - Fernando Mestre
- Research Centre for Anthropology and Health, Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Susana J Garcia
- Research Centre for Anthropology and Health, Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal; Centre for Public Administration and Public Policies, Institute of Social and Political Sciences, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal; National Museum of Natural History and Science, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
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22
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Guo Y, Cheng Z, Ding Y, Cai J. Educating for practice: A new redesigned pedagogical model of clinical forensic medicine. J Forensic Leg Med 2020; 76:102064. [PMID: 33129196 DOI: 10.1016/j.jflm.2020.102064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Revised: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Nowadays, cultivating experts in clinical forensic medicine (CFM) has become a universal problem worldwide. In most English-speaking countries, CFM is traditionally designed as an introduction and incorporation into medical undergraduate training whereas in China it is an essential sub-specialty of forensic science. The scope, missions, and tasks of this discipline vary widely by virtue of the diversity of countries and legal environment, leading to the difference in pedagogical model, even in professional qualities and abilities. Accordingly, it is imperative to uniform and standardize the training model of undergraduate of forensic major. In this article, we describe a redesigned pedagogical model of CFM implemented by the Faculty of Forensic Medicine, which is characterized by: (a) initiating students into comprehension of CFM and raising their awareness of the professional responsibilities; (b) developing students intellectual curiosity of legal and medical issues and educating in advanced techniques of CFM; (c) cultivating students ability of expression and communication in professional terms and providing with educational resources to enhance their professional qualities; and (d) improving teachers ability of imparting knowledge and promoting the development and optimization of teaching evaluation system. In terms of forensic practical and scientific research, plentiful prominent achievements have been currently acquired resulted from this redesigned pedagogical model, which demonstrates its superiority in undergraduate education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yadong Guo
- Department of Forensic Science, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, 410013, Hunan, China
| | - Zijia Cheng
- Department of Forensic Science, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, 410013, Hunan, China
| | - Yanjun Ding
- Department of Forensic Science, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, 410013, Hunan, China.
| | - Jifeng Cai
- Department of Forensic Science, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, 410013, Hunan, China.
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23
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Growns B, Martire KA. Human factors in forensic science: The cognitive mechanisms that underlie forensic feature-comparison expertise. Forensic Sci Int Synerg 2020; 2:148-153. [PMID: 32490372 PMCID: PMC7260433 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsisyn.2020.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Revised: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
After a decade of critique from leading scientific bodies, forensic science research is at a crossroads. Whilst emerging research has shown that some forensic feature-comparison disciplines are not foundationally valid, others are moving towards establishing reliability and validity. Forensic examiners in fingerprint, face and handwriting comparison disciplines have skills and knowledge that distinguish them from novices. Yet our understanding of the basis of this expertise is only beginning to emerge. In this paper, we review evidence on the psychological mechanisms contributing to forensic feature-comparison expertise, with a focus on one mechanism: statistical learning, or the ability to learn how often things occur in the environment. Research is beginning to emphasise the importance of statistical learning in forensic feature-comparison expertise. Ultimately, this research and broader cognitive science research has an important role to play in informing the development of training programs and selection tools for forensic feature-comparison examiners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bethany Growns
- School of Social and Behavioural Sciences, New College, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ, USA
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Kristy A. Martire
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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24
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Dror IE. The Error in "Error Rate": Why Error Rates Are So Needed, Yet So Elusive. J Forensic Sci 2020; 65:1034-1039. [PMID: 32315087 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.14435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2020] [Revised: 03/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Establishing error rates is crucial for knowing how well one is performing, determining whether improvement is needed, measuring whether interventions are effective, as well as for providing transparency. However, the flurry of activities in establishing error rates for the forensic sciences has largely overlooked some fundamental issues that make error rates a problematic construct and limit the ability to obtain a meaningful error rate. These include knowing the ground truth, establishing appropriate databases, determining what counts as an error, characterizing what is an acceptable error rate, ecological validity, and transparency within the adversarial legal system. Without addressing these practical and theoretical challenges, the very notion of a meaningful error rate is limited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Itiel E Dror
- UCL Centre for the Forensic Sciences, University College London, London, U.K.,Cognitive Consultants Internationals (CCI-HQ), London, U.K
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