The microbial communities and potential greenhouse gas production in boreal acid sulphate, non-acid sulphate, and reedy sulphidic soils

Storage and Distribution of Organic Carbon and Nutrients in Acidic Soils Developed on Sulfidic Sediments: The Roles of Reactive Iron and Macropores

In a boreal acidic sulfate-rich subsoil (pH 3-4) developing on sulfidic and organic-rich sediments over the past 70 years, extensive brownish-to-yellowish layers have formed on macropores. Our data reveal that these layers ("macropore surfaces") are strongly enriched in 1 M HCl-extractable reactive iron (2-7% dry weight), largely bound to schwertmannite and 2-line ferrihydrite. These reactive iron phases trap large pools of labile organic matter (OM) and HCl-extractable phosphorus, possibly derived from the cultivated layer. Within soil aggregates, the OM is of a different nature from that on the macropore surfaces but similar to that in the underlying sulfidic sediments (C-horizon). This provides evidence that the sedimentary OM in the bulk subsoil has been largely preserved without significant decomposition and/or fractionation, likely due to physiochemical stabilization by the reactive iron phases that also existed abundantly within the aggregates. These findings not only highlight the important yet underappreciated roles of iron oxyhydroxysulfates in OM/nutrient storage and distribution in acidic sulfate-rich and other similar environments but also suggest that boreal acidic sulfate-rich subsoils and other similar soil systems (existing widely on coastal plains worldwide and being increasingly formed in thawing permafrost) may act as global sinks for OM and nutrients in the short run.

Effects of liming on oxic and anoxic N2O and CO2 production in different horizons of boreal acid sulfate soil and non-acid soil under controlled conditions

In acid sulfate (AS) soils, organic rich topsoil and subsoil horizons with highly variable acidity and moisture conditions and interconnected reactions of sulfur and nitrogen make them potential sources of greenhouse gases (GHGs). Subsoil liming can reduce the acidification of sulfidic subsoils in the field. However, the mitigation of GHG production in AS subsoils by liming, and the mechanisms involved, are still poorly known. We limed samples from different horizons of AS and non-AS soils to study the effects of liming on the N₂O and CO₂ production during a 56-day oxic and subsequent 72-h anoxic incubation. Liming to pH ≥ 7 decreased oxic N₂O production by 97-98 % in the Ap1 horizon, 38-50 % in the Bg1 horizon, and 34-36 % in the BC horizon, but increased it by 136-208 % in the C horizon, respectively. Liming decreased anoxic N₂O production by 86-94 % and 78-91 % in Ap1 and Bg1 horizons, but increased it by 100-500 % and 50-162 % in BC and C horizons, respectively. Liming decreased N₂O/(N₂O + N₂) in anoxic denitrification in most horizons of both AS and non-AS soils. Liming significantly increased the cumulative oxic and anoxic CO₂ production in AS soil, but less so in non-AS soil due to the initial high soil pH. Higher carbon and nitrogen contents in AS soil compared to non-AS soil agreed with the respectively higher cumulative oxic N₂O production in all horizons, and the higher CO₂ production in the subsoil horizons of all lime treatments. Overall, liming reduced the proportion of N₂O in the GHGs produced in most soil horizons under oxic and anoxic conditions but reduced the total GHG production (as CO₂ equivalents) only in the Ap1 horizon of both soils. The results suggest that liming of subsoils may not always effectively mitigate GHG emissions due to concurrently increased CO₂ production and denitrification.

Nitrogen stocks and flows in an acid sulfate soil

Besides causing acidification, acid sulfate (AS) soils contain large nitrogen (N) stocks and are a potential source of N loading to waters and nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions. We quantified the stocks and flows of N, including crop yields, N leaching, and N₂O emissions, in a cultivated AS soil in western Finland. We also investigated whether controlled drainage (CD) and sub-irrigation (CDI) to keep the sulfidic horizons inundated can alleviate N losses. Total N stock at 0-100 cm (19.5 Mg ha^-1) was smaller than at 100-200 cm (26.6 Mg ha^-1), and the mineral N stock was largest below 170 cm. Annual N leaching (31-91 kg N ha^-1) plus N in harvested grain (74-122 kg N ha^-1) was 148% (range 118-189%) of N applied in fertilizers (90-125 kg N ha^-1) in 2011-2017, suggesting substantial N supply from soil reserves. Annual emissions of N₂O measured during 2 years were 8-28 kg N ha^-1. The most probable reasons for high N₂O emission rates in AS soils are concomitant large mineral N pools with fluctuating redox conditions and low pH in the oxidized subsoil, all favoring formation of N₂O in nitrification and denitrification. Although the groundwater level was higher in CD and CDI than in conventional drainage, N load and crop offtake did not differ between the drainage methods, but there were differences in emissions. Nitrogen flows to the atmosphere and drainage water were clearly larger than those in non-AS mineral soils indicating that AS soils are potential hotspots of environmental impacts.

Impact of mitigation strategies on acid sulfate soil chemistry and microbial community

Potential acid sulfate soils contain reduced iron sulfides that if oxidized, can cause significant environmental damage by releasing large amounts of acid and metals. This study examines metal and acid release as well as the microbial community capable of catalyzing metal sulfide oxidation after treating acid sulfate soil with calcium carbonate (CaCO3) or calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2). Leaching tests of acid sulfate soil samples were carried out in the laboratory. The pH of the leachate during the initial flushing with water lay between 3.8 and 4.4 suggesting that the jarosite/schwertmannite equilibrium controls the solution chemistry. However, the pH increased to circa 6 after treatment with CaCO3 suspension and circa 12 after introducing Ca(OH)2 solution. 16S rRNA gene sequences amplified from community DNA extracted from the untreated and both CaCO3 and Ca(OH)2 treated acid sulfate soils were most similar to bacteria (69.1% to 85.7%) and archaea (95.4% to 100%) previously identified from acid and metal contaminated environments. These species included a Thiomonas cuprina-like and an Acidocella-like bacteria as well as a Ferroplasma acidiphilum-like archeon. Although the CaCO3 and Ca(OH)2 treatments did not decrease the proportion of microorganisms capable of accelerating acid and metal release, the chemical effects of the treatments suggested their reduced activity.

Distribution of iron- and sulfate-reducing bacteria across a coastal acid sulfate soil (CASS) environment: implications for passive bioremediation by tidal inundation

Coastal acid sulfate soils (CASS) constitute a serious and global environmental problem. Oxidation of iron sulfide minerals exposed to air generates sulfuric acid with consequently negative impacts on coastal and estuarine ecosystems. Tidal inundation represents one current treatment strategy for CASS, with the aim of neutralizing acidity by triggering microbial iron- and sulfate-reduction and inducing the precipitation of iron-sulfides. Although well-known functional guilds of bacteria drive these processes, their distributions within CASS environments, as well as their relationships to tidal cycling and the availability of nutrients and electron acceptors, are poorly understood. These factors will determine the long-term efficacy of "passive" CASS remediation strategies. Here we studied microbial community structure and functional guild distribution in sediment cores obtained from 10 depths ranging from 0 to 20 cm in three sites located in the supra-, inter- and sub-tidal segments, respectively, of a CASS-affected salt marsh (East Trinity, Cairns, Australia). Whole community 16S rRNA gene diversity within each site was assessed by 454 pyrotag sequencing and bioinformatic analyses in the context of local hydrological, geochemical, and lithological factors. The results illustrate spatial overlap, or close association, of iron-, and sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) in an environment rich in organic matter and controlled by parameters such as acidity, redox potential, degree of water saturation, and mineralization. The observed spatial distribution implies the need for empirical understanding of the timing, relative to tidal cycling, of various terminal electron-accepting processes that control acid generation and biogeochemical iron and sulfur cycling.

Microbiology of healing mud (fango) from Roman thermae aquae iasae archaeological site (Varaždinske Toplice, Croatia)

We found well-preserved, rocky artefacts that had been buried in the healing mud (fango) for more than 1,500 years at the Roman archaeological site at Varaždinske Toplice. This Roman pool with fango sediments and artefacts is fed from hot sulphidic springs. The fango exhibited nearly neutral pH, a high level of organic C, an elevated concentration of heavy metals and a high total microbial biomass, greater than 10(8) cells per gram of dry weight. The dominant microbes, assessed by molecular profiling (denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis), were affiliated with Thiobacillus, Sulfuricurvum, Polaromonas, and Bdellovibrio. Polymerase chain reaction screening for microbial functional guilds revealed the presence of sulphur oxidizers and methanogens but no sulphate reducers. The dominance of four Proteobacterial classes (α-, β-, δ- and ε-Proteobacteria) was confirmed by fluorescence in situ hybridisation; Actinobacteria were less abundant. Cultivable bacteria represented up to 23.4 % of the total bacterial counts when cultivation media was enriched with fango. These bacteria represented the genera Acinetobacter, Aeromonas, Arthrobacter, Comamonas, Ewingella, Flavobacterium, Pseudomonas, Rahnella and Staphylococcus. This study showed that the heterogeneous nature of fango at neutral pH created various microniches, which largely supported microbial life based on sulphur-driven, autotrophic denitrification.

Response of pore water Al, Fe and S concentrations to waterlogging in a boreal acid sulphate soil

Environmental hazards caused by acid sulphate (AS) soils are of worldwide concern. Among various mitigation measures, waterlogging has mainly been studied in subtropical and tropical conditions. To assess the environmental relevance of waterlogging as a mitigation option in boreal AS soils, we arranged a 2.5-year experiment with monolithic lysimeters to monitor changes in the soil redox potential, pH and the concentrations of aluminium (Al), iron (Fe) and sulphur (S) in pore water in response to low and high groundwater levels in four AS soil horizons. The monoliths consisted of acidic oxidized B horizons and a reduced C horizon containing sulphidic material. Eight lysimeters were cropped (reed canary grass, Phalaris arundinacea) and two were bare without a crop. Waterlogging was conducive to reduction reactions causing a slight rise in pH, a substantial increase in Fe (Fepw) and a decrease in Al (Alpw) in the pore water. The increase in Fepw was decisively higher in the cropped waterlogged lysimeters than in the bare ones, which was attributable to the microbiologically catalysed reductive dissolution of poorly ordered iron oxides and secondary minerals. In contrast to warmer climates, Fepw concentrations remained high throughout the experiment, indicating that the reduction was poised in the iron range, while sulphate was not reduced to sulphide. Therefore, the precipitation of iron sulphide was negligible in the environment with a low pH and abundant with poorly ordered Fe oxides. Increased Fe in pore water counteracts the positive effects of waterlogging, when water is flushed from fields to watercourses, where re-oxidation of Fe causes acidity and oxygen depletion. However, waterlogging prevented further oxidation of sulphidic materials and decreased Alpw to one-tenth of the initial concentrations, and even to one-hundredth of the levels in the low water table lysimeters.