Ecosystem services response to urbanization in metropolitan areas: Thresholds identification

Projecting LUCC dynamics and ecosystem services in an emerging urban agglomeration under SSP-RCP scenarios and their management implications

Improving our knowledge of future dynamics of ecosystem services (ESs) in the face of climate change and human activities provides a crucial foundation to navigate complex environmental challenges, which are essential to attaining sustainable development particularly in urban regions. However, an existing dearth persists in thoroughly forecasting the intricate interplay of trade-offs and synergies, as well as ecosystem services bundling under distinct future scenarios. This study adopts an integrated research framework to understand the spatiotemporal dynamics of ESs in the Changsha-Zhuzhou-Xiangtan Urban Agglomeration (CZTUA) under three Shared Socioeconomic Pathway and Representative Concentration Pathway (SSP-RCP) scenarios (i.e., SSP126, SSP245 and SSP585). Our future scenarios suggest that the core urban area of CZTUA is projected to expand at the cost of forests and croplands by 2050. Furthermore, human-induced urbanization, particularly the high-intensity LUCC along the Xiangjiang river, significantly impacts ESs, resulting in lower ESs values. The trade-off effects between ESs are primarily observed between WY (water yield) and other ESs. Ecosystem service bundles (ESB) previously dominated by WY have significantly transitioned to CS (carbon storage)-HQ (habitat quality) bundle, especially in the urban core of CZTUA, which serves as an early warning of potential challenges related to water resources. Our study utilizes the latest climate and land use change predictions to evaluate ecosystems in urban agglomerations, and adopts a layered zoning strategy based on ESs, which provides decision-makers with reproducible tools to explore ecosystem changes.

Improving grassland ecosystem services for human wellbeing in the karst desertification control area: Anthropogenic factors become more important

Elucidating the spatial and temporal patterns of grassland ecosystem service value (ESV) changes under different karst geomorphic types (KGTs) is crucial for promoting regional sustainable development and enhancing human well-being. Karst ecosystems are characterized by high spatial heterogeneity. However, analyses of the drivers of spatial and temporal changes in ESV in karst grasslands at multiple scales are lacking. In this study, the South China Karst (SCK) region was selected as the focus area, the gross ecosystem product (GEP) accounting method was used to quantify the grassland ESV from 2000 to 2020, and the GeoDetector model was used to elucidate the spatial and temporal evolution of the GEP, the drivers, and their interactions in different KGTs. The results indicate the following: (1) Over the past 20 years, the grassland GEP of SCK has increased from ¥ 14,844.24 × 108 in 2000 to ¥ 17,174.90 × 108 in 2020. Among the various KGTs, the karst gorge exhibited the fastest GEP increase (24.93 %) and karst hilly depressions the slowest (6.22 %). (2) The karst grassland GEP showed a strong positive spatial correlation with significant clustering characteristics (p < 0.05). (3) There are significant differences in the factors influencing the GEP of grasslands with different KGT values, and although they are generally influenced by factors such as NPP, precipitation, and population density, anthropogenic factors are becoming increasingly important. In addition, the multifactor interaction explained GEP better than the single factor. Based on our findings, we propose targeted grassland ESV restoration approaches and management recommendations for various KGTs dominated by distinct factors. Our results provide a scientific basis for decision-making regarding karst ecosystem service enhancement and value realization.

A social-ecological approach for identifying and mapping ecosystem service trade-offs and conservation priorities in peri-urban areas

Considering both ecological and social dimensions in the assessment of ecosystem services (ESs) can facilitate acceptable and inclusive management strategies, especially in peri-urban areas characterized by intricate human-ecosystem interactions. A limited body of research, however, has mapped the plural values of ESs and their different types of trade-offs in such areas. This research aimed to execute an interdisciplinary analysis of the biophysical and social values of ESs in peri-urban Shanghai, China, through a social-ecological approach that integrates spatial biophysical assessment with participatory mapping. Trade-off analysis in both ES types and ES valuations were then conducted, and multicriteria decision-making was applied for conservation. Our results reveal that trade-off intensities were lower within the social values compared to the biophysical values. Within both value dimensions, relatively stronger trade-offs were found between food production and other ESs. Areas with both high biophysical and social values were infrequently observed across ESs. Based on the characteristics of diverse values, our study identified priority conservation areas and provided management implications. We argue that adopting the integrated social-ecological perspective in sustainable environmental management contributes to the realization of harmonious coexistence between people and nature in peri-urban areas.

Coupled relationships between landscape pattern and ecosystem health in response to urbanization

Rapid urbanization has highlighted ecological problems in the metropolitan area, with increasing landscape fragmentation and severe threats to ecosystem health (EH). Studying the spatio-temporal coupled relationship between landscape pattern and EH and its response to urbanization in the Fuzhou metropolitan area (FMA) can provide scientific reference for its long-term development planning. We examined the coupled relationship between landscape pattern and EH and its driving mechanism in the FMA at grid and township scales to address the gap. The results show that landscape heterogeneity, diversity, and dispersion are gradually increasing, and EH is rising progressively in the FMA from 2000 to 2020. The spatial distribution of landscape pattern indices and EH indicators showed a "high in the south and low in the north" trend. During the study period, the coupled relationship between landscape patterns and EH was increasingly powerful but with remarkable spatial heterogeneity. The study also found an inverted U-shaped relationship between urbanization and coupled relationships. Ecological landscapes' heterogeneity, diversity, and connectivity in low-urbanization areas are conducive to EH. The opposite is true for high-urbanization areas. This study provides a valuable reference for optimizing landscape planning and ecological management in metropolitan areas.

The rapid prosperity of China's Pearl River Delta from the perspective of social-ecological coupling: implications for sustainable management

Systems theory and complex science, especially knowledge of social-ecological interdependencies, are urgently needed in planning and decision-making on sustainable urban development due to the intensification of the contradiction between human development and nature conservation. Here, we present an analytical framework, the "social-ecological coupling trajectory", that integrates the social-ecological coupling, multi-stability, causal feedbacks and sustainable management through understanding the evolution of the urban social-ecological system (SES). This framework is applied to a typical urban SES, i.e., China's rapidly prosperous Pearl River Delta (PRD). Our results indicate that the SES evolution in the PRD is a phased process, which is accompanied by a continuous decline in major ecosystem services (ESs) and the disproportionate decline of ecological management performance. Further analysis shows that social and economic policies have a decisive role in driving the evolution of SES and the cumulative effect of sustained human interference is directly linked to the disproportionate increase in sustainability challenges. The findings of critical slowing down and evolution patterns of SES in the PRD may provide evidence for the threshold recognition and regime shift prediction in SES. In sum, this study expands the theoretical framework and empirical knowledge of SES evolution and provides a pathway for sustainable development of regions seeking prosperity from the social-ecological coupling perspective.

Impacts of urbanization on ecosystem carbon cycle: a case study of land use change in Tianjin metropolitan area

For the sustainable development of the city, in a study of Tianjin's rapid urbanization, we explore the complex interplay between land use change and the ecosystem carbon cycle from 2000 to 2020. Spatial analysis and profit-loss matrix calculations reveal contrasting ecological impacts: expansion of woodlands and grasslands enhances Net Primary Productivity (NPP) and reduces carbon emissions, while urban construction shows the opposite effect. Over 20 years, Tianjin's urban transformation led to a 16.91 GgC decline in NPP amidst a construction boom. However, post-2015 ecological policy shifts resulted in a significant net carbon uptake of 0.85 Gt, demonstrating the potential of policy interventions in mitigating environmental impacts of urbanization. This study underscores the importance of sustainable urban planning and ecological conservation strategies in highly urbanized settings.

Study on trade-offs and synergies of rural ecosystem services in the Tacheng-Emin Basin, Xinjiang, China: Implications for zoning management of rural ecological functions

Rural areas are the main source of ecosystem services in arid and semi-arid areas, and ecosystem services are the background conditions for rural revitalization. In this study, the spatial pattern of key ecosystem services in the countryside was assessed, and the trade-offs and synergistic relationships among ecosystem services were investigated, using the Tacheng-Emin Basin in China as the study area. Finally, the types of ecological function zoning and development strategies for the countryside are proposed. The results showed that: (1) the area of ecological land was large, and the average land use intensity was 2.48, which belonged to the medium intensity. (2) The mean values of the six ecosystem services are all in the middle and lower classes, and the spatial distribution of the five ecosystem services is similar, except for food production. (3) Except for grain production, the other five ecosystem services showed positive feedback to elevation. The other five ecosystem services are synergistic, and there are trade-offs between grain production and other ecosystem services. In the nonlinear interaction mechanism of ecosystem services, the fluctuation constraint occupies the largest proportion. (4) At smaller spatial scales, there are more types of ecosystem service clusters. Combining the results of the study, the villages in the study area can be categorized into five types. This study formulates five priority levels of rural ecological revitalization and proposes different development recommendations for the sustainable development of each type of village. This study is helpful for the fine management of land resources and the revitalization of rural ecology and provides a reference for the sustainable development of ecosystem services in arid and semi-arid areas.

Spatiotemporal ecosystem services: Response to structural changes (A case study in Lahijan, Iran)

Structure and function are the inherent characteristics of each ecosystem providing various services such as clean air, extreme weather mitigation, and mental and physical well-being. The objective of this study is to develop a unified model combining Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services, ecological network (EN), and correlation analysis to investigate changes in ecosystem structure, function, and process. In this context, carbon sequestration, soil reduction, and flood risk mitigation were quantified from 2000 to 2020 and predicted for 2040 using the cellular automata and Markov chain (CA-Markov) model. Finally, correlation analysis was used to analyze the relationship over time between the land use (LU) classes and the components of the forest EN that provide and exchange desired ecosystem services (ESs). Thus, the changes in LU in the region in recent years led to significant reduction of ESs in the region as well as changes in the interaction between services. These changes, on the one hand, reduced the area of cores and increased isolated forest patches and, on the other hand, led to the horizontal expansion of cities and agricultural lands. If this trend continues, the decline in services provided by the ecosystem will persist into the future. Consequently, it can be said that structural changes in the ecosystem can lead to changes in the ESs. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2024;20:1099-1111. © 2023 SETAC.

The nexus between urbanization and ecosystem services balance in China: A coupling perspective

Urbanization inevitably interfered with the supply and demand of ecosystem services (ESs), which has a crucial impact on the ESs balance. Scientific exploration and clarification of the coupling and decoupling relationship between them can effectively reveal the disturbance of urbanization to the ecosystem, which can help to reasonably manage and protect the ecosystem. Previous studies have paid more attention to the coupling relationship but less attention to the decoupling relationship. This study comprehensively reflected urbanization from the three aspects of construction land, population, and economy and used the evaluation matrix to measure ESs. On this basis, coupling and decoupling analyses were taken to fully clarify the complex relationship between urbanization and ESs balance in China, so as to provide a reference for the formulation of relevant policies. Coupling aspect, the coupling degrees between the proportion of construction land (CLP) and ESs balance index (ESBI) were higher only in the central and eastern plains. The coupling degrees between population density (PD) and ESBI, economic density (ED) and ESBI, and land development index (LDI) and ESBI were only lower in the central and eastern plains than in other regions. Decoupling aspect, strong, weak negative, weak, and strong negative decoupling were the main decoupling types between urbanization and ESs balance in China. Among them, the proportion of the strong decoupling type is much higher than other types, which proves the opposite relationship between the two. Weak decoupling can not only promote economic growth and social development but also protect the ecological environment and biodiversity, which is a type of sustainable development and an ideal state that urbanization should pursue. The results can provide scientific guidance for the formulation of differentiated ecosystem management policies.

An empirical analysis of the coupling and coordinated development of new urbanization and ecological welfare performance in China's Chengdu-Chongqing economic circle

New urbanization (NU) and ecological welfare performance (EWP) play pivotal roles in achieving sustainable urban development, with both emphasizing social equity and environmental management. Exploring the coordinated relationship between EWP and NU is invaluable for understanding the symbiotic interplay between humans and nature. We constructed a framework to elucidate the coupling mechanism of EWP and NU from the perspective of systems theory. We quantified the levels of NU and EWP utilizing the entropy weighting method and the super-efficient SBM method, respectively. Furthermore, we assessed the degree of coupling coordination between the two using the coupling coordination degree model (CCDM). Spatial and temporal evolution analysis was conducted, and factors influencing the degree of coupling coordination between EWP and NU were explored through a spatial-temporal geographically-weighted regression model (GTWR). The results indicate: (1) During the study period, the average annual increase in EWP in the study area was 2.59%, with a narrowing relative gap between cities. Conversely, the average annual increase in the level of NU was 7.6%, with demographic and economic dimensions carrying the highest weights. (2) The type of coupling coordination between EWP and NU transitions from basic coordination to moderate coordination, with the development of EWP lagging behind that of NU. (3) City size demonstrates a positive yet diminishing trend on the coupling coordination level, with economic development exerting the greatest influence and exhibiting a "V" trend, while the impact of green technology innovation diminishes negatively. Additionally, regional disparities are significant, with city size exhibiting a negative impact in areas of high population density and low economic levels, and green technology innovation showing notable polarization characteristics in core cities. These findings serve as a foundation for fostering coordinated ecological development amid the rapid urbanization process of the Chengdu-Chongqing Economic Circle.

Integrating historical patterns and future trends for ecological management zone identification and validation: A case study in Beijing, China

Ecological management zones (EMZs) are pivotal in improving the management of ecosystem services (ESs) and promoting sustainable regional development. In this study, we developed a comprehensive framework aimed at identifying EMZs and substantiating their efficacy through the amalgamation of historical evolutionary patterns and future trends. We applied this framework to Beijing, China, and selected five vital ESs for the study area namely, water yield (WY), carbon sequestration (CS), habitat quality (HQ), soil conservation (SC) and water purification (WP). The framework involves two key components. Firstly, the identification of EMZs is based on the historical evolution of five types of ESs and the dynamic assessment of ES bundles. Subsequently, it enables a simulation of various scenarios to predict future alterations in land use and ESs, thereby validating the effectiveness of the identified EMZs. Our findings reveal notable spatial heterogeneity among different ESs, and that CS, HQ, SC, and WP exhibited synergies, while WY and showed trade-offs with the remaining four types of ESs. Based on an analysis of ES bundle evolution trajectories, we identified four types of EMZs: ecological conservation zone, ecological restoration zone, ecological transition zone and sustainable construction zone. Through strategic EMZ planning, it becomes possible to augment the area of forestland and grassland, alleviate the contradiction between arable land and construction land, and enhance the supply of various ESs. The proposed framework not only offers a novel perspective on the scientific management of ESs but also furnishes decision-makers and planners with an intuitive understanding of the tangible benefits associated with EMZ planning.

Vegetation cover dynamics and its constraint effect on ecosystem services on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau under ecological restoration projects

Ecological restoration projects (ERPs) are implemented worldwide to restore degraded ecosystems and promote ecosystem sustainability. In recent years, a series of ERPs have been implemented to enhance vegetation cover in the unique alpine ecosystems of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP). However, the current assessment of the ecological benefits of ERPs is relatively single, and the scale and extent of future ecological restoration project implementation cannot be determined. We quantified trends in normalized vegetation index (NDVI) since the implementation of ERPs. Changes in four major ecosystem services were assessed before and after ERPs implementation, including wind erosion protection, soil retention, water yield, and net primary productivity (NPP). The relationship between NDVI and ecosystem services was further explored using a constraint line approach to identify NDVI as a threshold reference for ERPs implementation. The results showed that: (1) since the implementation of ERPs, 21.80% of the regional NDVI of the QTP has increased significantly. (2) After the implementation of ERPs, the average total ecosystem services index (TES) increased from 0.269 in 2000 to 0.285 in 2020. The average soil retention and water yield increased but the NPP and sandstorm prevention decreased slightly. (3) NDVI had no significant constraint effect on soil retention and NPP, but there was a significant constraint effect on wind erosion prevention and water yield. (4) The constraint line of NDVI on TES was S-shaped. After the implementation of ERPs, the TES gradually reached a threshold value when NDVI was 0.65-0.75. Our findings identify significant contributions of ERPs and thresholds for the constraining effects of vegetation cover on ecosystem services, which can inform sustainable ERPs for governments.

Substantial urbanization-driven declines of larval and adult moths in a subtropical environment

Recent work has shown the decline of insect abundance, diversity and biomass, with potential implications for ecosystem services. These declines are especially pronounced in regions with high human activity, and urbanization is emerging as a significant contributing factor. However, the scale of these declines and the traits that determine variation in species-specific responses remain less well understood, especially in subtropical and tropical regions, where insect diversity is high and urban footprints are rapidly expanding. Here, we surveyed moths across an entire year in protected forested sites across an urbanization gradient to test how caterpillar and adult life stages of subtropical moths (Lepidoptera) are impacted by urbanization. Specifically, we assess how urban development affects the total biomass of caterpillars, abundance of adult moths and quantify how richness and phylogenetic diversity of macro-moths are impacted by urban development. Additionally, we explore how life-history traits condition species' responses to urban development. At the community level, we find that urban development decreases caterpillar biomass and adult moth abundance. We also find sharp declines of adult macro-moths in response to urban development across the phylogeny, leading to a decrease in species richness and phylogenetic diversity in more urban sites. Finally, our study found that smaller macro-moths are less impacted by urban development than larger macro-moths in subtropical environments, perhaps highlighting the tradeoffs of metabolic costs of urban heat favoring smaller moths over the relative benefits of dispersal for larger moths. In summary, our research underscores the far-reaching consequences of urbanization on moths and provides compelling evidence that urban forests alone may not be sufficient to safeguard biodiversity in cities.

Assessing production-living-ecological spaces and its urban-rural gradients in Xiangyang City, China: insights from land-use function symbiosis

Understanding the formation process and pattern of production-living-ecological spaces (PLES) is crucial for sustainable land-use management and adaptive city governance. However, previous studies have neglected the symbiotic relationships between land-use functions (LUFs) in identifying and optimizing PLES. To address this gap, this paper proposes a technical framework for assessing PLES from a LUF symbiosis perspective. A case study was conducted in Xiangyang City, China, to identify PLES and analyze its urban-rural differentiation using the symbiosis degree model and landscape pattern indices. Our findings revealed that the symbiotic relationships between LUFs varied. There were 25 combination types of PLES in Xiangyang City, with significantly varied area proportions and spatial distribution. The landscape types and fragmentation of PLES increased along with the gradient change from the old urban area to the rural area. Furthermore, we proposed a PLES optimization strategy involving LUFs symbiosis and the urban-rural gradient. Our study enriches the dimensions of PLES assessment and supports better-coordinated planning and the protection of PLES.

Threshold effect of ecosystem services in response to human activity in China's urban agglomeration: a perspective on quantifying ecological resilience

Ecological resilience reflects the role of human activity intensity (HMI) on regional ecosystem services (ESs), and resilience improvement is crucial for the high-quality development of urban agglomeration areas. However, a theoretical framework for ecological resilience needs to be developed based on ES thresholds under human activities. Based on the threshold index, we used threshold regression model to determine of the nonlinear dominant factors affecting ESs and to identify the priority areas for ecological restoration. The results suggest that (1) CS, HQ, and TES declined, while FP increased. The spatial distribution of each ES showed higher values in the central region and lower values in the surrounding areas. HMI showed a significant upward trend, with expanding high-HMI areas. There is a threshold effect in the relationship between HMI and ESs, leading to variations in their positive, non-monotonic, or non-linear interactions. (2) HMI positively and significantly affects ESs, especially at low threshold levels. The effect of HMI on ESs is negative in counties with higher threshold levels rather than in lower-level grids. (3) The critical area of artificial potential ecological restoration was 712 km2, primarily concentrated around urban; the critical area of natural restoration was 490 km2. Therefore, the threshold in the relationship between HMI and ESs should be given more attention. This study serves as a guide for picking out key regions for territorial ecological restoration.

Combining spatiotemporal interactions of ecosystem services with land patterns and processes can benefit sensible landscape management in dryland regions

The study of land-use patterns and transitions has extended its influence into multiple ecosystem services (ESs) and their relationships, the integration of which can offer an opportunity to enhance the credibility of ES assessments in spatial landscape planning and management. However, it is not clear whether actual trade-offs/synergies are consistent at different spatial and temporal scales and have similar responses to land use/land cover (LULC). In this study, based on ecological zoning, we simulated three typical ESs (soil retention, water yield and carbon sequestration) and their correlations in the Loess Plateau of China. Furthermore, the spatial relationships among ESs and LULC patterns and the temporal relationships among ESs and LULC transfer were discussed to identify possible implications for future land-use management. The results showed that there were obvious trade-offs or synergies at the spatial scale, and most synergetic relationships among the three ESs weakened during 2000-2020. However, unstable values are approximately 0 at the temporal scale, so the relationship using "space-for-time" approach exaggerates the temporal coupling among ESs. Most spatial ES interactions decreased with increasing ratio of forest and grassland, which deserves more attention in ecological restoration. It is indispensable to consider both spatial and temporal variations in ES relationships as LULC changes to achieve sustainable development in multiscale landscape planning.

Driving model of land use change on the evolution of carbon stock: a case study of Chongqing, China

Terrestrialecosystems are significant carbon sinks and are crucial for understanding the regional and global carbon cycles, energy flow, and climate change. As land use change is a significant process affecting ecosystem carbon stocks and striving for land degradation neutrality (LDN), studying it is essential for comprehending the evolution of regional carbon sink functions and achieving sustainable development goals. The drastically diverse land use patterns in each of the study area's regions resulted in significant differences in carbon stock. This study explores the evolution traits of carbon stocks based on land use data and their driving mechanisms in Chongqing during the past 30 years by using spatial analysis, the InVEST model, and geographic probes. The results demonstrate that from 1990 to 2020, land degradation in Chongqing was made worse by the demand for land for construction land, but the strategy of converting cropland back to forests raised the carbon stock of forest land. The overall result is a decrease in total carbon stocks of 5.1078 Tg or 1.5%. The main pathway for carbon loss pathway in the evolution of carbon stock is the conversion of cropland to construction land, and the primary carbon compensation pathway is the conversion of grassland and cropland to forest land, with a spatial distribution characterized by "higher in the whole area and obvious local differences." The land use intensity index has the most significant influence on the evolution of carbon stock. Moreover, the interaction of pairwise factors played a more important role in affecting the evolution of carbon stocks than did each factor individually. The case study in this paper shows that land use change is a significant driving mechanism for the evolution of carbon stock, and the development of a driving model theory is appropriate for deciphering the trajectory of carbon stock evolution and offering research suggestions for other regions.

Assessing the ecological risk of croplands in loess drylands by combining environmental disturbance with ecosystem vulnerability

Agroecosystems suffer various ecological risks due to the intensive production of crops. However, comprehensive assessments of cropland ecological risks remain limited. This study developed an assessment method for cropland ecological risks by combining environmental disturbance with ecosystem vulnerability. Environmental disturbance reflects stresses caused by risk sources in an environment, while ecosystem vulnerability is the susceptibility of an ecosystem to adverse disturbances and its capacity to cope and adapt. The proposed method is conducive to understanding the complex exposure-response relationship between croplands and environmental stresses. Cropland ecological risk was evaluated by conducting a case study on a loess dryland region in Shaanxi. The hot spots and driving factors of risk were explored using spatial autocorrelation and quantile regression methods, respectively. Results show that overall cropland ecological risk is at medium low level. Risk hot spots are concentrated in the north of the loess dryland. Ecosystem vulnerability exerts greater effect on the distribution of hot spots than environmental disturbance in the study area. Road density (RDD), river density, and soil organic matter exert the most important effects on cropland ecological risk. Moreover, the same driving factor exhibits various effects on cropland ecological risk in different risk level areas. RDD, slope, precipitation, elevation, fertilizer application rate, gross domestic product, and distance to town center have greater effects on risk in regions with high cropland ecological risk than in regions with low cropland ecological risk. The findings of this study must be considered in formulating targeted policies for controlling cropland ecological risk in loess drylands to realize sustainable crop production.

The impact of urbanization on ecosystem services: Both time and space are important to identify driving forces

Rapid urbanization is one of the key factors in threatening regional ecological security and undermining human well-being. Understanding of the impacts of urbanization on ecosystem services (ESs) could provide comprehensive information for policy making to support ecological governance. In this study, the spatial and temporal distributions of four ESs, namely water yield (WY), soil conservation (SC), nitrogen export (NE), and habitat quality (HQ), and four factors of urbanization, namely construction land percentage, economic density, population density, and nighttime lighting, were analyzed in the Xiangjiang River Basin (XJRB) from 1990 to 2020. The impacts of urbanization on ESs at the sub-watershed and county level were investigated using the space-for-time and change-over-time methods. The results showed that: (1) WY, SC, and NE fluctuated throughout the study period, while HQ significantly decreased and urbanization factors significantly increased. (2) Each urbanization factor had a significant influence on the spatial heterogeneity of ESs, with the contribution at the county level being 2.88%-56.11% higher than that at the sub-watershed level. Moreover, there were enhanced interactions between factors in general, although spatial heterogeneity effects on NE and HQ were weaker at the county level. (3) Urbanization and ESs had a significant nonlinear relationship, and there was a threshold of relationship change between them, with the impact of urbanization on ESs showing evident spatial heterogeneity in terms of both the driving direction and intensity of change over time. (4) The change-over-time method identified 1992-1995 and 2008-2013 as key periods of change in the relationship between urbanization and ESs in the XJRB, and the method had the advantage of revealing the spatial heterogeneity of the effects of driving factors. These findings provide a reference for decision making related to urban planning.

Scale-dependent responses of ecosystem service trade-offs to urbanization in Erhai Lake Basin, China

Urbanization is an important factor affecting ecosystem services (ESs) and their trade-offs. However, little is known about the responses of ES trade-offs to urbanization at different scales. Here, the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs (InVEST) model was used to evaluate water yield (WY), water purification (WP), carbon storage (CS), and habitat quality (HQ) in Erhai Lake Basin using earth observation data, and the percentage of urban land (PUL), population density (POP), gross domestic product (GDP), and night light index (NLI) were used as urbanization indicators. We quantified the ES trade-offs using the root mean square error and analyzed spatiotemporal changes in urbanization indicators, ESs, and their trade-offs. Finally, we characterized the relationship between urbanization and ES trade-offs using correlation analysis and curve regression at the grid and town scales. From 2000 to 2020, values of PUL/GDP/NLI/POP were high in the south and low in the north; specifically, they were 15, 8, 2, and 0.42 times higher in the south than in the north, respectively. The urban expansion area in the Erhai Basin from 2000 to 2020 resulted in a 123.24% and 77.03% increase in WY and WP, respectively, and a 32.38% and 100% decrease in CS and HQ, respectively. The trade-offs between WY and CS and between WY and HQ increased, and other ES trade-offs decreased. Urbanization was significantly correlated with most ES trade-offs at the grid scale, but not at the town scale. There was a significant positive correlation between all urbanization indicators and the trade-off between CS and WP (p < 0.05), and the magnitude of the correlation increased with scale. The relationship between ES trade-offs and urbanization was mostly U-shaped and inverted U-shaped at the grid scale, but N-shaped and inverted N-shaped at the town scale. This study provides information that could be used for multi-scale urban planning.

Spatial Responses of Ecosystem Service Trade-offs and Synergies to Impact Factors in Liaoning Province

Global ecosystem services (ESs) are experiencing a significant decline, necessitating the development of robust environmental governance policies. To address the lack of integrated planning with heavy industry as the research object and a lack of knowledge of ES trade-offs and synergies in China's ecological and environmental governance. In this study, the spatial and temporal variations of four ESs (water yield (WY), soil conservation (SC), carbon storage (CS), and habitat quality (HQ)) were determined in the study area of Liaoning Province. Explore the mechanisms that shape ecosystem service trade-offs and synergies and the factors that influence them. Spearman's correlation and difference analyses were proposed to determine the spatial and temporal distributions of trade-offs and synergistic relationships among ESs. In addition, we constructed a multiscale geo-weighted regression (MGWR) model to investigate driver spatial heterogeneity affecting trade-offs and synergies. The results revealed that (1) In the study area, ESs were on the rise in Liaoning Province. (2) Temporally, ESs were overwhelmingly dominated by synergies; at the spatial scale, ESs were dominated by trade-offs of varying degrees, with the area of synergy between WY and SC being the highest. (3) ESs demonstrated spatial heterogeneity in intensity and were more impacted by natural factors such as vegetation cover, elevation, and precipitation than by characteristics related to human activity. This study helps improve understanding of the interactions and dependencies among ESs and can provide a reference for ecological governance and improvements in Liaoning Province.

Impacts of land use transitions on ecosystem services: A research framework coupled with structure, function, and dynamics

Rapid urbanization in China has resulted in drastic land use transitions (LUT) and has had a severe impact on the supply of regional ecosystem services (ESs). To improve ecosystem security and promote sustainable development regionally, it is essential to clarify spatial correlations between the multi-dimensional characteristics of LUT and ESs. We developed a theoretical framework to examine how LUT influenced regional ESs in three dimensions: land use structure, function, and dynamics. Using the Taihu Lake Rim urban agglomeration (TLRUA) as an example, we explored the process by which LUT affected the change in regional ESs. The results indicated that the TLRUA experienced accelerated urbanization between 2000 and 2018, with LUT and ESs exhibiting distinct characteristics in urban, suburban, and rural areas in different regions. The impact of LUT on ESs, as we analyzed them from different dimensions, embraced interactive effects and significant spatial spillover effects. The land use structural transitions were globally positively correlated with habitat maintenance, carbon sequestration, and recreation potential, whereas land use intensity and dynamics transitions exhibited negative correlations. Given their interactions at the local scale, we propose corresponding land management strategies, which can offer practical guidance for coordinating regional land resource development and ecosystem conservation.

Understanding supply-demand mismatches in ecosystem services and interactive effects of drivers to support spatial planning in Tianjin metropolis, China

Metropolitan areas are being challenged by the disparity between growing societal needs and dwindling natural resource provision. Understanding the supply-demand mismatches of ecosystem services (ES) and their drivers is essential for landscape planning and decision-making. However, integrating such information into spatial planning remains challenging due to the complex nature of urban ecosystems and their intrinsic interactions. In this study, we first assessed and mapped the supply, demand, and mismatches of six typical ES in Tianjin, China. We then clustered numerous townships based on their corresponding spatial characteristic of ES supply-demand mismatches. We also used Random Forest regression to examine the relative importance of drivers and applied Partial Least Squares structural equation modelling to decouple their interactions. The results showed that, the distribution of ES supply and demand showed obvious spatial heterogeneity, with a common surplus of ES supply in highly natural mountainous region and an excess of demand in urban centre. Additionally, all towns were classified into four spatial clusters with homogeneous states of supply-demand mismatches, serving as basic units for spatial optimization. Moreover, the interactions between drivers affected ES supply-demand mismatches in a coupled manner, including the direct effects of the socioeconomic factor (-0.821) and landscape composition (0.234), as well as the indirect effects of the biophysical factor (0.151) and landscape configuration (0.082). Finally, we discussed the utility of analysing the spatial mismatches between ES supply and demand for integrated territorial planning and coordinated decision-making.

Wetland health assessment using DPSI framework: a case study in Kolkata Metropolitan Area

Wetlands are among the most valuable components of the ecosystem, playing an important role in preventing floods, maintaining the hydrological cycle, protecting against natural hazards, and controlling local weather conditions and ecological restoration. The Kolkata Metropolitan Area (KMA) is considered one of the most ecologically valuable regions in terms of wetland ecosystem, but due to haphazard development and human activities, the wetlands of the city are under constant threat of degradation. Therefore, this study aims to assess the factors responsible for wetland health and their dynamics using Driving Force-Pressure-State-Impact (DPSI) framework. To assess wetland health during 2011-2020, seventeen indicators and four sub-indicators were selected to calculate weights using the analytic hierarchy process (AHP). The results showed that most of the municipalities in the healthy category were in the pressure (P) section in 2011, while fluctuations were observed in the impact (I) section in several wards during 2011-20. The condition section (S) showed the overall change in the water, vegetation, and built-up categories from 2011 to 2020, so the most dominant category was "healthy," followed by "unhealthy" and "poor." The highly significant factors worsening wetland health were population density (B1), road density (B3), per capita wastewater generation (B5), per capita solid waste generation (B7), biological oxygen demand (D1a), dissolved oxygen (D1b), pH (D1c), and total coliform (D1d). The results of the study can help develop sustainable conservation and management of the wetland ecosystem in the KMA urban area and at the global level with similar geographical conditions.

Exploring the coupling and decoupling relationship of urbanization and carbon emissions in China

Burgeoning urbanization is a defining challenge for global carbon emissions mitigation in the coming decades. In this context, achieving low-carbon urbanization remains an urgent issue that demands prompt solutions. The coupling and decoupling relationships between urbanization and carbon emissions play an important role in the coordination of urbanization development and carbon emissions reduction, which has rarely been explored in existing studies, especially in China at the county level. To address this gap, the coupling and decoupling relationship between the urbanization level (UL) and carbon emissions density (CED) was explored using an improved coupling degree model and the Tapio decoupling method in China at the county level from 2000 to 2020. The results showed that the UL and CED of China both exhibited increasing trends, and the spatial distribution was quite similar, with the UL increasing from 0.018 in 2000 to 0.028 in 2020 and the CED increasing from 95.163 ton/km2 in 2000 to 295.746 ton/km2 in 2020. The spatial distribution of hotspots in the UL change differed with time, whereas that in the CED change was relatively stable. However, both of them were concentrated in eastern China. The coupling degrees of the UL and CED in China were 0.348, 0.355, 0.369, 0.370, and 0.338 in 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020, respectively, with the moderately unbalanced type (>35%) being dominant at the county level and mainly scattered in eastern China. The changes in the spatial distribution patterns of the 10 subcategories were quite limited, with the systematically balanced type being dominant (89%). The decoupling types of the UL and CED during 2000-2005, 2005-2010, and 2010-2015 were weak decoupling, while those in 2015-2020 were expansive negative decoupling. At the county level, the most significant transition occurred between expansive negative decoupling, strong decoupling, and strong negative decoupling. The proportion of strong decoupling type counties peaked in 2015-2020 (70.86%), whereas that of the strong negative decoupling type counties remained high (17.55%), scattering the country. These findings can advance policy enlightenment of low-carbon urbanization and green development for China against the backdrop of "30·60 dual carbon" goal.

Spatiotemporal distribution characteristics of ecosystem health and the synergetic impact of its driving factors in the Yangtze River Delta, China

In recent years, . the rapid development of the Yangtze River Delta in China has led to increasingly serious regional eco-environmental problems. Therefore, it is of great significance for the construction of ecological civilization to study the ecosystem health in the Yangtze River Delta. In this paper, the assessment framework of "Vigor-Organization-Resilience" was used to assess the ecosystem health index (EHI) of the Yangtze River Delta from 2000 to 2020, and then the spatial autocorrelation method was used to analyze the agglomeration of EHI in 314 counties in this region. Finally, the eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) model and the SHapley Additive exPlanation (SHAP) model were combined to explore the synergistic impact of EHI driving factors. The results show that (1) from 2000 to 2020, the EHI in the Yangtze River Delta is at the level of ordinary health, and gradually decreased; (2) the EHI has significant spatial positive correlation and aggregation; (3) the driving factors in descending order of importance are urbanization level (UL), precipitation (PRE), PM2.5 (PM), normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), and temperature (TEMP); and (4) the relationship between UL and EHI is logarithmic; PRE and EHI are quartic polynomial; PM, NDVI, TEMP, and EHI are quadratic polynomial. The results of this paper are of great significance to the management and restoration of the ecosystem in this region.

Analysis of the relationship between supply-demand matching of selected ecosystem services and urban spatial governance: a case study of Suzhou, China

The mismatch between the supply and demand of ecosystem services has become a critical cause of the decline of urban ecological security. Studying the supply-demand matching of ecosystem services and exploring its association with urban spatial governance are imperative for ensuring sustainable urbanization. Taking Suzhou City as a case, the supply and demand values and matching degrees of five selected ecosystem services were assessed. Additionally, we explored the relationship between ecosystem services and urban spatial governance, with a focus on urban functional zoning. The findings indicate that first, the supply value of water production, food production, carbon sequestration, and tourism and leisure fall short of the demand value, while the supply value of air purification exceeds the demand value. The spatial matching of supply and demand shows a typical circular structure, with areas in short supply predominantly located in the downtown area and its vicinity. Second, the degree of coupling coordination between the supply-demand ratio of selected ecosystem services and the intensity of ecological control is low. Urban functional zoning can affect the supply-demand relationship of selected ecosystem services, and intensified development efforts can exacerbate the mismatch between supply and demand. Third, research on the supply-demand matching of selected ecosystem services can facilitate the assessment and regulation of urban functional zoning. Urban spatial governance can be regulated based on land use, industry, and population, with a focus on achieving a better supply-demand matching of ecosystem services. Through the analysis, this paper is aimed to provide reference for mitigating urban environmental problems and formulating sustainable urban development strategies.

Exploring the regional differences of ecosystem health and its spatial relationships with urban forms in China

A deeper understanding of the regional differences and driving factors behind ecosystem health (EH) is of vital for ecosystem management and restoration. Although a considerable number of studies have focused on this topic, few studies have explored the spatial relationship and scale effect between urban forms and EH from the perspective of urban scale, agglomeration and irregularity. Therefore, this study first constructed an improved evaluation framework by integrating vigor, organization, resilience and ecosystem services supply-demand ratio to measure the EH level in China at the county scale during 1995-2015, and then evaluated and compared the spatial relationships between five urban form metrics and EH based on the spatial regression model at the national, regional, urban agglomeration and city scales. The results showed that the level of EH in China spatially decreased from the southeast to the northwest, and displaying significant spatial agglomeration. At the national scale, the fragmentation and complexity of urban form exerted the greater negative influence on EH than urban expansion scale. At the regional scale, controlling urban expansion scale and enhancing landscape connectivity were conducive to the improving of EH in the central and eastern regions. At the urban agglomeration scale, the regularity and compactness of urban form played a key role in the sustainable development of regional and national urban agglomerations. At the city scale, large cities can improve environmental quality by limiting the size of core patches and reducing the complexity of urban shape. This paper can provide a scientific guidance for ecosystem protection and urban high-quality development.

Ecological challenges in the economic recovery of resource-depleted cities in China

The depletion of resource reserves will cause stagnation of socio-economic development in resource-based cities. The formation of new sources of economic growth in resource-depleted cities can profoundly change the structure of human activities and affect the environment. The Chinese government has established a list of resource-depleted cities in three batches since 2008 to support these cities in finding new sources of economic growth. The article analyzes the impact of the regeneration process of resource-based cities on ecosystem quality. The paper constructs an inter-city panel dataset covering 281 cities from 2003 to 2018. The article valued the habitat quality of Chinese cities. Habitat quality index and normalized vegetation index were used to measure the long-term and short-term ecological impacts of economic recovery in resource-based cities. Using a difference-in-difference technique, the results show that the central government's economic support for resource-based cities significantly improves the condition of urban ecosystems. However, the long-term ecological effects are still smaller than the short-term changes in ecosystems. The transmission path of support policies affecting the ecological quality of cities depends on the shift in industrial structure and economic scale at the provincial level. In addition, urban-rural differences, regional distribution, and resource endowment also significantly affect the ecological effects of supportive policies.

Vegetation restoration thresholds under different vegetation types and altitude gradients in the Sichuan-Yunnan ecological shelter, China

Determining the threshold for the response of ecosystem services (ESs) to vegetation change is critical for ecological restoration, and once the threshold is exceeded, ESs may be inhibited. Vegetation type and altitude are important factors affecting ESs. However, the nonlinear effects of vegetation change on ESs and their threshold under different vegetation types and altitude gradients are not clear. This study selected the Sichuan-Yunnan ecological shelter as the study area. Four ESs (water yield (WY), carbon storage (CS), soil conservation (SC), and water purification (WP)) were quantified by using the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs model. The differences in ESs among different vegetation types were identified. Variance analysis was used to explore the spatial differences in ESs under different altitude gradients. The inflection point of the promoting effect of vegetation cover on ESs was taken as the threshold, and elastic analysis was used to determine the impact threshold of fractional vegetation cover (FVC) on ESs. The threshold represents the inflection point at which vegetation cover promotes ESs. The results showed that the CS, SC, and WP of the natural forest were higher than those of the plantation, while the WY was lower than that of the plantation. WY, CS, and SC remained higher in the high-altitude regions, while nitrogen export was higher in the low-altitude regions. FVC was positively correlated with nitrogen export in the low-altitude regions and negatively correlated with WY in the high-altitude regions. FVC had a promoting effect on ESs, and the promoting effect was weakened beyond the threshold. The thresholds of FVC promoting ESs were 0.86, 0.79, 0.85, and 0.83 in natural forest, shrub, plantation, and grassland, respectively. The threshold of FVC promoting ESs in low-altitude regions was larger than that in high-altitude regions. This study can provide a theoretical basis for large-scale ecological management and moderate restoration.

Differentiated factors drive the spatial heterogeneity of ecosystem services in Xinjiang Autonomous Region, China

Exploring the driving factors of changing ecosystem services is critical for supply capacity maintaining and ecological management zoning. Xinjiang of Northwest China, is considered one of the most fragile ecological environment areas. However, studies on how ecosystem services’ driving forces respond to the environmental conditions of Xinjiang are still insufficient, especially in sub–regions with considerable spatial heterogeneity. Based on 106 counties across Xinjiang, we employed models of the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) and Revised Wind Erosion Equation (RWEQ) to quantify four essential ecosystem services (carbon storage, habitat quality, and sand fixation and water yield). Then, we investigated the spatial distribution of four ecosystem services and drivers at the county scale in 2020 by using multi–scale geographically weighted regression (MGWR). The results showed that the spatial distribution of ecosystem services is higher in the north and lower in the south, and hotspots and high–value ecosystem services areas were consistent. Precipitation, temperature, and fractional vegetation cover were the dominant factors influencing the four ecosystem services. Therefore, regulating climate and increasing vegetation will maximize the improvement of regional ecosystem services in Xinjiang. Significant differences exist in the counties of the type, intensity, and direction of ecosystem services drivers. The correlation between carbon storage, habitat quality and fractional vegetation cover was more robust stronger in the south. Water yield was more closely related to fractional vegetation cover in southern Xinjiang. Under different ecological and social conditions, the impact of driving forces on ecosystem services showed different changing trends. Three suggestions for improving ecosystem services management were proposed based on our results. The comparative analysis of the driving factors of county ecosystem services in this study will help to formulate differentiated ecological protection policies and promote a sustainable supply of ecosystem services in Xinjiang. In the future, it is necessary to strengthen the long-term monitoring and evaluation of ecosystem services and the research on the interaction of multiple drivers.

Ecological function zoning based on ecosystem service bundles and trade-offs: a study of Dongjiang Lake Basin, China

Although the research framework of ecological function zoning is complex and diverse, there are not many spatially continuous zoning results, which can be effectively applied to watershed management practices. Ecosystem service bundles and trade-offs can identify interactions among multiple ecosystem services, and achieve better social-ecosystem management when applying to ecological function zoning. Taking the Dongjiang Lake Basin, China, as research area, the study used the InVEST model to investigate the trade-offs and synergies of ecosystem services at township and grid scales, respectively. Then, the study conducted ecological function zoning based on the bundles and trade-off intensity among ecosystem services. The results showed that food production showed extremely significant trade-offs with other services in the two scales, in which the trade-off intensity between food production and water purification was the largest, and the water areas were the hotspots of trade-off intensity. Based on the ecosystem service bundles at the township, combined with the trade-off intensity, the watershed was finally divided into four ecological functional zones, namely, agricultural product supply area (southern part in the study area), economic forestry area (northeast regions in the study area), water supply area (western areas of the study area), and forest conservation area (northern areas in the study area), accounting for 29.27%, 14.63%, 17.07%, and 39.03%, respectively. The study contributed to the ecological function maintenance and sustainable development in Dongjiang Lake Basin and provided an important reference in ecological zoning.

Quantifying the impact of the Grain-for-Green Program on ecosystem service scarcity value in Qinghai, China

Studying the impact of large-scale ecological projects, such as the Grain-for-Green Program (GGP), on ecosystem services (ES) is currently a frontier and hot topic of ecological research. The GGP can directly change land use and land cover, thus affecting ES. By comparing the changes of ecosystem service value (ESV) and ecosystem service scarcity value (ESSV) in Qinghai before and after the implementation of the GGP, this paper clarified the impact of the GGP on Qinghai from the angles of ecology and economics. This paper quantified and evaluated the land use dynamics, ESV, and ESSV in Qinghai from 1995 to 2020. The results showed that in the past 25 years, the total annual Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) of Qinghai showed a trend of sustained growth. From 1995 to 2020, the ESV increased by 6.80%. After considering supply and demand, the ESSV showed a continuous upward trend, increasing by 719.38%. After implementation of the GGP, the increase of NDVI inhibited the increase of the ESSV. These findings from evaluation of the effect of the GGP implementation provide a theoretical basis for future policy implementation and, in particular, a reference for the evaluation of the ESV and the ESSV in Qinghai.

Spatiotemporal exploration of ecosystem service, urbanization, and their interactive coercing relationship in the Yellow River Basin over the past 40 years

Understanding how ecosystem services (ESs) interact with urbanization is crucial for formulating sustainable development policies. Although previous literature has paid attention to this topic, information on complex spatiotemporal interactions between ESs and urbanization remains inadequate, especially in the Yellow River Basin (YRB), a typical basin that will usher in rapid progress of ecological protection and urbanization. In this study, we constructed a framework for evaluating ecosystem service values (ESV) and urbanization by synthesizing multi-source data in the YRB from 1980 to 2018, and further revealing the interactive coercing mechanisms of ESV and urbanization. We found that the YRB has experienced rapid urbanization, with an increasing growth trend for all urbanization indicators, especially from 2000 onwards. ESV had a significant negative correlation with urbanization, showing a decreasing trend with urbanization growth before 2000, but reversed this trend after 2000 as ecological restoration projects offset the adverse effects of urbanization on ESV. Furthermore, while significant negative spatial correlations occurred between ESV and urbanization, these correlations diminished over time. The results also revealed differences in the spatial correlations between global and local scales, with three types of spatial correlations at the local scale: High-Low (high ESV and low urbanization), Low-High (low ESV and high urbanization), and Low-Low (low ESV and low urbanization). Our results contribute to understanding the interactive coercing relationship between ESV and urbanization in the YRB, particularly at the local scale, and insights into coordinating future ecological protection and urban development.

Mapping ecosystem services for ecological planning and management: a case from a tropical planning region, Eastern India

Burdwan City experienced an important urbanization trend inducing dramatic land use/land cover (LULC) changes over the past 28 years. However, their effects on ecosystem services value (ESV) remain unknown. The prime objective of this study is to analyze the spatial heterogeneity of ESV in the Burdwan Planning Area (BPA) from 1990 to 2018. Ecosystem service value (ESV) was estimated using the benefits transfer method, and the contribution of LULC was also computed using contribution rate (CR). The dynamics of LULC were also calculated from the change intensity index and single LULC dynamics. The sensitivity of ESVs to LULC using an elasticity indicator between 1990 and 2018 was performed. The results showed that during the entire study period, built-up are and open lands or sand bars increased 362.34% and 42.40%; water bodies, vegetation, and agricultural lands decreased by 33.24%, 7.20%, and 13.66%, respectively, from 1990 to 2018. In case of ESV, total ESVs were US $95.26 (1990), US $95.85 (2000), US $95.42 (2010), and US $91.38 (2018) million. There was a reduction of the total ESV of US $3.88 million between 1990 and 2018. A substantial spatial heterogeneity of ESV between rural and urban landscapes was reported due to variations of ecological landscapes. The main driver of ESs value loss was a rapid conversion of natural land cover (vegetation, water bodies) into semi-natural or artificial landscapes, i.e., urban settlement. Being a planning region, assessing the impact of LULC dynamics on the ESVs is necessary for sustainable urban development and effective urban environmental management.

Use and perception of ecosystem services on an urban river: a case from lower Gangatic plain, Eastern India

Rapid urbanisation and climate change have emerged as serious threats to ecosystem services (ES), and the deterioration of ES is affecting the quality of life. The research on ES was long performed from monetary perspectives and neglected evaluation of ES from social perspectives. This study proposes a social appraisal approach for evaluating urban river ES on Mahananda River in English Bazar Urban Agglomeration (EBUA), Eastern India, through the social perception and preference (SPP) approach. SPP approach was performed using the importance-performance analysis (IPA) model and satisfaction index (SI). Mann-Whitney U test, correlation analysis, and a median regression were performed to better understand the overall scenario on the perception and preference for ES. The findings of the study showed that (i) the stakeholder residing along the left bank of the river were highly dependent on provisioning ES; (ii) there was limited access to cultural ES provided by the river; (iii) the stakeholders residing along the left bank and slum stakeholders residing along the right bank of the river were more dependent on rive ES; (iv) relatively higher discrepancy was reported from recreation, aesthetic, and bio-diversity; (v) satisfaction level on ES was relatively low to the stakeholder residing along the left bank (50%); and (vi) as per improvement index (II), recreation, aesthetic value, bio-diversity, and purification of water must be prioritised to meet the societal needs. Thus, the study's findings can be very effective in implementing actions for sustainable holistic river ES management through the SPP approach.

Topsoil Carbon Stocks in Urban Greenspaces of The Hague, the Netherlands

Urbanization influences soil carbon (C) stocks and flows, which, in turn, affect soil-derived ecosystem services. This paper explores soil C storage in urban greenspaces in the Dutch city of The Hague along a transect from the suburban seaside towards the city centre, reflecting a toposequence from dune to peaty inland soils. C storage and C mineralisation potential were evaluated in relation to soil type and greenspace categories. Several soil-quality characteristics were measured, including dissolved organic C, pH, electrical conductivity, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, calcium carbonate, and the water-holding capacity of the soil to evaluate what drives soil C storage in the urban context. The total SOC storage of the upper 30 cm of the greenspaces in The Hague (20.8 km2 with 37% greenspace) was estimated at 78.4 kt, which was significantly higher than assumed given their soil types. Degradability of soil organic matter in laboratory batch tests varied between 0.2 and 3 mg C gSOC−1 day−1. Degradability was highest in the seaside dune soils; however, extrapolated to the topsoil using the bulk density, topsoil C mineralization was higher in the urban forest. Soils beneath shrubs appeared to be hotspots for C storage, accounting for only 13% of the aerial cover but reflecting 24% of the total C storage. Land ownership, land use, greenspaces size, litter management and soil type did not result in significantly different C stocks, suggesting that processes driving urban soil C storage are controlled by different factors, namely land cover and the urbanization extent.

Spatially Non-Stationary Response of Carbon Emissions to Urbanization in Han River Ecological Economic Belt, China

Within the context of the "30·60 dual carbon" goal, China's low-carbon sustainable development is affected by a series of environmental problems caused by rapid urbanization. Revealing the impacts of urbanization on carbon emissions (CEs) is conducive to low-carbon city construction and green transformation, attracting the attention of scholars worldwide. The research is rich concerning the impacts of urbanization on CEs but lacking in studies on their spatial dependence and heterogeneity at multiple different scales, especially in areas with important ecological statuses, such as the Han River Ecological Economic Belt (HREEB) in China. To address these gaps, this study first constructed an urbanization level (UL) measurement method. Then, using a bivariate spatial autocorrelation analysis and geographically weighted regression model, the spatial relationships between UL and CEs from 2000 to 2020 were investigated from a multiscale perspective. The results were shown as follows. The total CEs in the HREEB witnessed an upsurge in the past two decades, which was mainly dispersed in the central urban areas of the HREEB. The ULs in different regions of the HREEB varied evidently, with high levels in the east and low levels in the central and western regions, while the overall UL in 2020 was higher than that in 2000, regardless of the research scale. During the study period, there was a significant, positive spatial autocorrelation between UL and CEs, and similar spatial distribution characteristics of the bivariate spatial autocorrelation between CEs and UL at different times, and different scales were observed. UL impacted CEs positively, but the impacts varied at different grid scales during the study period. The regression coefficients in 2020 were higher than those in 2000, but the spatial distribution was more scattered, and more detailed information was provided at the 5 km grid scale than at the 10 km grid scale. The findings of this research can advance policy enlightenment for low-carbon city construction and green transformation in HREEB and provide a reference for CE reduction in other similar regions of the world.

Natural and anthropogenic factors on China's ecosystem services: Comparison and spillover effect perspective

With the development of urbanization, ecological space is increasingly disturbed and invaded by human activities. From 2000 to 2020, the value of ecosystem services in China decreased from 28.05 to 27.77 trillion yuan. This paper combines the natural and social data of 370 administrative units in China from 2000 to 2020 with the GTWR model. Our results show that in most regions of China, the coefficient value of factor GDP or POP is significantly higher than that of other factors. The regions with higher natural factors coefficient value are concentrated in the northwest and southeast. In addition, this study found that the driving factors and ESV have geographical spillover effects. The above conclusions have important practical significance for planning policies according to local conditions.

Responses of spatial relationships between ecosystem services and the Sustainable Development Goals to urbanization

Ecosystem services (ES) are the important component supporting the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) realization. In recent decades, rapid urbanization has strongly affected the relationship between ES and SDGs, resulting in the decoupling of ES and SDGs. However, the key urbanization factors dominating the relationship between ES and SDGs are still unclear. In this study, a structural equation model was constructed to explore the impact path and its change of urbanization structure and scale factors on the relationship between ES and SDGs. The results showed that the economic urbanization structure indicator (Engel coefficient) under the influence of technology import significantly impacted the relationship between ES and SDGs in different periods. Under the influence of changes in urban and rural population, population urbanization structure indicator (labor force population proportion) had significant impact on the relationship between ES and economic SDGs, which was significantly stronger in the period of 2010-2015 than in the period of 2000-2005. Land urbanization scale indicators (construction land proportion, and protected natural area proportion) also significantly impacted the relationship between ES and SDGs. Especially for ecological SDGs, the negative impact of construction land on protected natural area increased significantly in the period of 2010-2015, which might further weaken the ES's contribution to SDGs. This study highlighted that along with the continuous transformation of China's society, the key impacts on the relationship between ES and SDGs resulted from the urbanization indicators of scale as well as structure, which provided an extensive support for the sustainable development and social transformation of developing countries and regions.

Spatial Relationships and Impact Effects between Urbanization and Ecosystem Health in Urban Agglomerations along the Belt and Road: A Case Study of the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area

A healthy ecosystem is fundamental for sustainable urban development. Rapid urbanization has altered landscape patterns and ecological functions, resulting in disturbances to ecosystem health. Exploring the effects of urbanization on ecosystem health and the spatial relationships between them is significant for cities along the "Belt and Road" aiming to achieve sustainable regional development. This study took the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area (GBA) as an example and measured the urbanization level (UL) and ecosystem health index (EHI) from 2000 to 2020 using multisource data. We used bivariate spatial autocorrelation, the geographically weighted regression model (GWR), and the optimal parameters-based geographical detector (OPGD) model to clarify the impact of urbanization on ecosystem health and the spatial relationship between them from multiple perspectives. The major findings of this study were: (1) the EHI in the GBA decreased significantly during the study period, dropping from 0.282 to 0.255, whereas the UL increased significantly, exhibiting opposite spatial distribution features; (2) there was a significant negative spatial correlation between UL and the EHI and significant spatial heterogeneity between high-low and low-high types in the GBA; (3) the negative effects of urbanization on ecosystem health were predominant and becoming more pronounced in the central GBA. Moreover, urbanization had an increasingly significant negative effect, leading to the deterioration of ecosystem health, in the central GBA. Population urbanization drove land urbanization, which became the main factor affecting ecosystem health in the GBA. Overall, urbanization had a significant negative effect on ecosystem health, with this impact being particularly prominent in the core urban junctions of the GBA, which require urgent attention. The results of the study provide a basis for decision making in the context of the steady urbanization and ecosystem health protection of cities along the "Belt and Road".

Trade-Off Analyses of Multiple Ecosystem Services and Their Drivers in the Shandong Yellow River Basin

With the intensification of conflicts between different ecosystem services, how to achieve a win-win situation between socio-economic development and ecological protection is an important issue that needs to be addressed nowadays. In particular, how to better quantify and assess the intensity of ecosystem service trade-offs and their relative benefits, and to identify the influencing factors are issues that need to be studied in depth. Based on the INVEST model, this paper analyzed the evolution of spatial and temporal patterns of ecosystem services such as Carbon Storage (CS), Food Production (FP), Habitat Quality (HQ), and Water Yield (WY) in the Shandong Yellow River Basin (SYRB) in 2000, 2010 and 2020. Next, we quantitatively measured the trade-off intensity and revealed the key influencing factors of the trade-off intensity evolution using automatic linear models, root mean square deviation, and geographically weighted regressions. Subsequently, we further analyzed the impact of the correlation between environmental and socio-economic factors on the trade-off intensity of ecosystem services. The results indicated that the temporal and spatial changes of the four main ecosystem services in SYRB area were inconsistent. WY showed a fluctuating trend, with a large interannual gap. CS and FP are on the rise, while HQ is on the decline. Spatially, WY and HQ showed a decreasing distribution from the center to the periphery, while FP and CS showed a decreasing distribution from the southwest to the northeast. The location characteristics of SYRB's four ecosystem services and their trade-offs were obvious. FP had absolute location advantage in ecosystem service trade-offs. Most of the four ecosystem services showed significant trade-offs, and the trade-off intensity had significant spatial heterogeneity, but the trade-off between FP and CS was relatively weak. At the same time, there were also differences in the trends of trade-off intensities. Counties with low trade-off intensity were mostly located in mountainous areas; these areas are less disturbed by human activities, and most of them are areas without prominent services. Counties with high trade-off intensities were mostly concentrated in areas with relatively developed agriculture; these areas are more disturbed by human activities and are mostly prominent in FP. The trade-off intensity of ecosystem services in SYRB was affected by several factors together, and there were difference characteristics in the degree and direction of influence of each factor. Moreover, these influencing factors have gradually changed over 20 years. In terms of the spatial distribution at the county scale, the influence areas of the dominant drivers of different trade-off types varied greatly, among which the areas with NDVI, CON, and PRE as the dominant factors were the largest. In the future, in effectively balancing regional economic development and ecological environmental protection, quantifiable correspondence strategies should be developed from the administrative perspective of counties and regions based on comprehensive consideration of the locational advantages of each ecosystem service and changes in trade-offs.

Spatial Response of Ecosystem Service Value to Urbanization in Fragile Vegetation Areas Based on Terrain Gradient

The contradiction between urban expansion and ecological protection in fragile vegetation areas has become increasingly prominent with regional development. Revealing the relationship between urbanization and ecosystem services will help to provide solutions to this problem. In order to clarify the impact of urbanization on typical mountain areas with fragile vegetation on the Qinghai Tibet Plateau, we built an ecosystem service value (ESV) evaluation index system. We also evaluated the ESV and its spatial response to the urbanization of Shannan Prefecture in Tibet from 1990 to 2015 based on different terrain gradients (TGs) using vegetation biophysical data obtained from remote sensing platforms. The results show that ESV in Shannan increased first and then declined as the TG increased, reaching a maximum value at the third TG. ESV showed a decreased trend during the study period, with a significant decline at the second and third TGs, which were the main distribution areas of vegetation in Shannan. Through spatial correlation analysis, we observed that urbanization and ESV showed a significant spatial aggregation effect. Among them, the high-low type accounted for the largest proportion in the grid with the agglomeration effect, mainly concentrated at the lower TG in the southern of Shannan, where ESV decreases with the increasing urbanization. We highlight the need for targeted, sustainable development policies to rationally organize the urbanization process in the different-gradient plateau regions with fragile vegetation. These results can provide a reference for applying ESV to vegetation restoration and ecological protection in ecologically fragile mountain areas.

Ecosystem service trade-offs and spatial non-stationary responses to influencing factors in the Loess hilly-gully region: Lanzhou City, China

The identification of trade-offs and synergies relationships among ecosystem services is one of the important contents of evaluating the regional ecological environment, and is of great significance to regional ecological governance and sustainable development. In this study, Lanzhou was selected as the research area. Four key ecosystem services, such as habitat quality, soil retention, food production, and ecological leisure were evaluated by using the InVEST model and related formulas. The difference comparison method was used to measure trade-offs and synergies relationships among ecosystem services. Then the spatial non-stationarity response of the trade-offs to influencing factors was explored through GWLR model. Finally, the trade-offs intensity among the ecosystem services of each township was calculated by using the PPF and the trade-offs intensity index, and township development strategies to enhance synergies had been formulated. The results showed: (1) The high-value areas of habitat quality, soil retention, and ecological leisure were all distributed in the areas with high vegetation coverage such as nature reserves, national forest parks, and forest farms, while the high-value areas of food production services were distributed in the Qinwangchuan Basin, Zhuanglang River and Wanchuan Basin and other areas with abundant water resources. (2) The spatial distribution pattern of trade-offs and synergies relatiionships among ecosystem services had heterogeneity. Among them, the habitat quality-food production, soil rentention-food production and habitat quality-ecological leisure services were mainly trade-offs in the whole study area, and the remaining services were mainly synergistic. (3) The relationships between ecosystem services trade-offs and influencing factors, including ≥0 °C accumulated temperature, DEM and construction land area proportion, were robust, and the response of trade-offs to ≥0 °C accumulated temperature and DEM was highly similar. (4) Based on the principle of superposition analysis method, the whole study area was divided into four types of areas: I (4 types of services coexistence), II (3 types of services coexistence), III (2 types of services coexistence) and IV (to develop at most one service). This study can provide certain scientific guidance for the optimization and governance of regional ecosystems and the synergic development of townships.

Optimization of management by analyzing ecosystem service value variations in different watersheds in the Three-River Headwaters Basin

Variation analysis of ecosystem services (ESs) is an important means of regional watershed management, especially for the ecologically fragile Three-River Headwaters Basin (TRHB), which is an important part of the national ecological security barrier. In this study, meteorological data, remote sensing images and land use data from 2000 to 2020 in the TRHB were collected. Based on the estimation of ecosystem service values (ESVs), the spatial-temporal variations of ESVs in the three watersheds were analyzed via spatial autocorrelation analysis, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and correspondence analysis. The study indicates that for the 20-year changes in the TRHB, the provisioning service (PS) and regulating service (RS) increased in most areas except for a small decrease in the northwest, while the supporting service (SS) value in most areas in the southwest showed a decreasing trend. Through the difference results of different watersheds, it can be seen that the differences in the PS and RS values among the three watersheds became increasingly more significant with the passage of time. Moreover, a significant correspondence was identified between each watershed and each ESV level, whereby the highest ESV levels (SS-VI, RS-VI, and PS-VI) mainly corresponded to the Yellow River watershed, the high values (SS-V, RS-V, PS-V, SS-IV, RS-IV, and PS-IV) mainly corresponded to the Lancang River watershed, and the low values (SS-I, RS-I, and PS-I) corresponded to the Yangtze River watershed. Our analysis shows the variation characteristics of ESVs to provide a guiding basis for ensuring the precise implementation of the management and protection of watersheds in the TRHB or similar areas.

What is the spatiotemporal relationship between urbanization and ecosystem services? A case from 110 cities in the Yangtze River Economic Belt, China

Rapid urbanization has altered landscape patterns and ecological functions, causing a decline in ecosystem service and generating many ecological and environmental issues. Studying the spatiotemporal interaction between urbanization and ecosystem service (ES) can provide effective supports for regional sustainability and policy formulation. This research utilizes the Yangtze River Economic Belt (YREB) as a case to analyze the spatiotemporal interaction between multi-urbanization indicators and multi-ESs over a large-scale region. The results show that the urbanization process in the YREB evolves from a rapidly growing state to a steady state with a slower rise. The urbanization level of the Yangtze River Delta urban agglomeration is relatively higher than the other regions. The distribution pattern of urbanization shows an overall characteristic of lower urbanization in the west and higher in the east. From 2009 to 2016, ecosystem service value (ESV) in the YREB decreased first and then increased, ESV in 2016 showed a reduction of 12.768 billion yuan compared with the 2009 level. ESV increases gradually from highly urbanized areas to those with lower levels of urbanization. Areas with high ESV levels are distributed at the middle reaches of YREB. There is a U-shaped curve relationship between urbanization and ESV, the ESV sharply increased when the urbanization index exceeded 0.6 in 2012. Land urbanization has the greatest impact on ESV among the four subtypes of urbanization indicators. Urbanization and ESV show the synergy relationship mostly in the eastern region, accounting for 18.18% of the total 110 cities. By contrast, they present the trade-off relationship in northern, southern and central regions, occupying 47.27% of the total observations. This study is helpful to provide scientific suggestions regarding the development of new urbanization, the protection of ESV, and the issue of how to achieve synergistic and sustainable development between them.

Non-linear effects of natural and anthropogenic drivers on ecosystem services: Integrating thresholds into conservation planning

Ecosystem services (ESs) have been widely used for ecological protection and land spatial planning. Natural and anthropogenic drivers exhibit a strong dynamic coupling relationship with ESs. However, current ESs-related research focused on mapping the ESs spatially or investing the trade-offs and synergies relationship between ES, ignoring the nonlinear response of ESs to natural and anthropogenic drivers. Here we aimed to investigate the nonlinear effect of 14 potential drivers (8 natural and 6 anthropogenic) on the total value of six typical ESs (ESV). Taking Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban agglomeration (BTH) in China as an example, we established 14 constrain lines and identified critical thresholds through the restricted cubic splines (RCS) regression. We found strong non-linear impacts of natural and anthropogenic drivers on ESV and critical thresholds existed among all the 14 constrain lines. The RCS plots showed that the overall ESV was kept at a high level before or after certain thresholds (e.g., altitude >687 m, slope >13.4°, NDVI >0.7, distance from water <31.2 km, etc.). We categorized these threshold combinations and found the potentially high ES delivery areas were mainly distributed in the Yanshan Mountian, accounting for approximately 5% of the total BTH region. These critical thresholds offer a new method to delineate conservation and restoration priority areas.

The Impact of Urbanization on the Relationship between Carbon Storage Supply and Demand in Mega-Urban Agglomerations and Response Measures: A Case of Yangtze River Delta Region, China

Rapid urbanization in mega-urban agglomerations disturbs the balance of carbon storage supply and demand (CSD) and constrains the achievement of sustainable development goals. Here, we developed a socio-ecological system (SES) framework coupled with ecosystem services (ES) cascade and DPSIR model to systematically analyze the impacts and responses of urbanization affecting CSD. We quantified urbanization and CSD using multi-source remote sensing data, such as land use and night lighting, together with related socio-economic data, such as total energy consumption, population and GDP. We found that from 2000 to 2020, the urbanization of Yangtze River Delta region (YRD) led to a decrease of 2.75% in carbon storage supply and an increase of 226.45% in carbon storage demand. However, carbon storage supply was still larger than carbon storage demand, and the spatial mismatch of CSD is the most important problem at present. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the response measures from the comprehensive perspective of SES. We identified key ecological conservation areas using a Marxan model to protect the carbon storage capacity in ecological subsystems, and promoted a carbon compensation scheme based on both the grandfather principle and the carbon efficiency principle, reconciling the contradiction between ecological conservation and socio-economic development in the social subsystem. Finally, this study quantified the threshold of urbanization based on the carbon neutrality target at which CSD reaches an equilibrium state. This study proposed a SES framework, and a set of methodologies to quantify the relationship between urbanization and CSD, which will help mega-urban agglomerations to promote harmonious development of urbanization and ecological conservation and to achieve the carbon peak and carbon neutrality targets proposed by the Chinese government.

A cross-scale study on the relationship between urban expansion and ecosystem services in China

Clarifying the relationship between urban expansion and ecosystem services (ESs) is critical for sustainable management of land resources and ecosystems. However, little is known about the relationship between the two at the cross-scale (particularly at the national-provincial scale). Therefore, we conducted a systematic assessment of the spatiotemporal dynamics and the relationship between urban expansion and ESs including food production (FP), soil conservation (SC), carbon sequestration (CS), and water yield (WY) in China from 1992 to 2020 on the national-provincial scale. The results show that China's urban expansion took up a large amount of cropland, accounting for 79.35% of the newly-added built-up land. Shandong had the largest expansion scale and the highest speed, Shanghai had the most pronounced expansion intensity, and more than 50% of the provinces were dominated by outlying expansion pattern. In terms of total change, the three ESs of FP, SC, and WY increased by 286.5 × 10⁶ t, 1893.61 × 10⁶ t, and 8337.20 × 10⁶ mm, respectively, and CS decreased by 683.90 × 10⁶ Mg C. However, in the urban expansion area, FP and CS net decreased by 1757.6 × 10⁴ t and 19,640.19 × 10⁴ Mg C, respectively, while SC and WY net increased by 347.52 × 10⁴ t and 20,264.11 × 10⁴ mm, respectively. Shandong contributed the most to changes in ESs in urban expansion areas. Urban expansion was significantly negatively correlated with FP and CS with the correlation coefficients > -0.8; it was significantly positively correlated with SC and WY, with coefficients of 0.714 and 0.413, respectively, and urban expansion had a lagged effect on ESs. The impact of urban expansion on ESs had a spatial spillover effect and showed prominent spatial clustering in Anhui, Henan, and Shandong. Based on these results, we proposed urban planning countermeasures grounded in the perspective of ES improvement, which would provide policy references for the sustainable management of the ecological environment and land resources.

Estimating the effects of driving forces on ecosystem services and their responses to environmental conditions

Understanding the factors driving ecosystem service (ES) change is essential for maintaining ES functions and achieving sustainable development. Although research on the spatial variations in the effects of driving forces on ESs provides guidance for regional ecological management, the responses of driving forces to environmental conditions have not been adequately investigated, especially in regions with high spatial heterogeneity. By using remote sensing images and socioeconomic data, this paper aims to fill this gap by estimating the spatial distribution characteristics of the effects of driving forces on ESs and their responses to different environmental conditions in Sichuan Province, China. First, the biophysical values of soil conservation (SC) and water yield (WY) were evaluated using ecological simulation models. Second, the spatial distribution of the effects of four driving forces on two services was explored using the geographically weighted regression (GWR) model. Finally, the responses of driving forces to environmental conditions were quantified by using scatter plots. The results revealed that the spatial patterns of SC and WY showed spatial heterogeneity. The effects of driving forces on ESs varied with space. Both positive and negative effects of driving forces were observed in Sichuan Province. Under different biophysical and socioeconomic conditions, the effects of driving forces on ESs showed different change trends, characterized by fluctuating trends and obvious thresholds. In our study area, urban sprawl, impervious surfaces, agricultural expansion, intensive human activities, and complex topographic features contributed to the variations in the effects of driving forces. Our results suggest that the responses of driving forces to different land-use coverage, topographical, NDVI, and socioeconomic conditions should be considered in ecological decision-making. Such research results are expected to manage the driving forces of ESs and serve as a practical reference for local management in order to maintain the functions of ESs and attain sustainable development.