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Thermal acclimation in brook trout myotomal muscle varies with fiber type and age. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2023; 276:111354. [PMID: 36464087 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2022.111354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Revised: 11/23/2022] [Accepted: 11/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
As climate change alters the thermal environment of the planet, interest has grown in how animals may mitigate the impact of a changing environment on physiological function. Thermal acclimation to a warm environment may, for instance, blunt the impact of a warming environment on metabolism by allowing a fish to shift to slower isoforms of functionally significant proteins such as myosin heavy chain. The thermal acclimation of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) was examined by comparing swimming performance, myotomal muscle contraction kinetics and muscle histology in groups of fish acclimated to 4, 10 and 20 °C. Brook trout show a significant acclimation response in their maximum aerobic swimming performance (Ucrit), with acclimation to warm water leading to lower Ucrit values. Maximum muscle shortening velocity (Vmax) decreased significantly with warm acclimation for both red or slow-twitch and white or fast-twitch muscle. Immunohistochemical analysis of myotomal muscle suggests changes in myosin expression underly the thermal acclimation of swimming performance and contraction kinetics. Physiological and histological data suggest a robust acclimation response to a warming environment, one that would reduce the added metabolic costs incurred by an ectotherm when environmental temperature rises for sustained periods of time.
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2
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Hahlbeck N, Tinniswood WR, Sloat MR, Ortega JD, Wyatt MA, Hereford ME, Ramirez BS, Crook DA, Anlauf-Dunn KJ, Armstrong JB. Contribution of warm habitat to cold-water fisheries. CONSERVATION BIOLOGY : THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR CONSERVATION BIOLOGY 2022; 36:e13857. [PMID: 34766374 DOI: 10.1111/cobi.13857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 10/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
A central tenet of landscape ecology is that mobile species depend on complementary habitats, which are insufficient in isolation, but combine to support animals through the full annual cycle. However, incorporating the dynamic needs of mobile species into conservation strategies remains a challenge, particularly in the context of climate adaptation planning. For cold-water fishes, it is widely assumed that maximum temperatures are limiting and that summer data alone can predict refugia and population persistence. We tested these assumptions in populations of redband rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss newberrii) in an arid basin, where the dominance of hot, hyperproductive water in summer emulates threats of climate change predicted for cold-water fish in other basins. We used telemetry to reveal seasonal patterns of movement and habitat use. Then, we compared contributions of hot and cool water to growth with empirical indicators of diet and condition (gut contents, weight-length ratios, electric phase angle, and stable isotope signatures) and a bioenergetics model. During summer, trout occurred only in cool tributaries or springs (<20 °C) and avoided Upper Klamath Lake (>25 °C). During spring and fall, ≥65% of trout migrated to the lake (5-50 km) to forage. Spring and fall growth (mean [SD] 0.58% per day [0.80%] and 0.34 per day [0.55%], respectively) compensated for a net loss of energy in cool summer refuges (-0.56% per day [0.55%]). In winter, ≥90% of trout returned to tributaries (25-150 km) to spawn. Thus, although perennially cool tributaries supported thermal refuge and spawning, foraging opportunities in the seasonally hot lake ultimately fueled these behaviors. Current approaches to climate adaptation would prioritize the tributaries for conservation but would devalue critical foraging habitat because the lake is unsuitable and unoccupied during summer. Our results empirically demonstrate that warm water can fuel cold-water fisheries and challenge the common practice of identifying refugia based only on summer conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nick Hahlbeck
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
| | - William R Tinniswood
- Klamath Watershed District Office, Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, Klamath Falls, Oregon, USA
| | | | - Jordan D Ortega
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
| | - Matthew A Wyatt
- Klamath Watershed District Office, Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, Klamath Falls, Oregon, USA
| | - Mark E Hereford
- Klamath Watershed District Office, Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, Klamath Falls, Oregon, USA
| | - Ben S Ramirez
- Klamath Watershed District Office, Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, Klamath Falls, Oregon, USA
| | - David A Crook
- Research Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia
| | - Kara J Anlauf-Dunn
- Corvallis Research Lab, Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
| | - Jonathan B Armstrong
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
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3
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Venney CJ, Wellband KW, Normandeau E, Houle C, Garant D, Audet C, Bernatchez L. Thermal regime during parental sexual maturation, but not during offspring rearing, modulates DNA methylation in brook charr ( Salvelinus fontinalis). Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20220670. [PMID: 35506232 PMCID: PMC9065957 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.0670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Epigenetic inheritance can result in plastic responses to changing environments being faithfully transmitted to offspring. However, it remains unclear how epigenetic mechanisms such as DNA methylation can contribute to multigenerational acclimation and adaptation to environmental stressors. Brook charr (Salvelinus fontinalis), an economically important salmonid, is highly sensitive to thermal stress and is of conservation concern in the context of climate change. We studied the effects of temperature during parental sexual maturation and offspring rearing on whole-genome DNA methylation in brook charr juveniles (fry). Parents were split between warm and cold temperatures during sexual maturation, mated in controlled breeding designs, then offspring from each family were split between warm (8°C) and cold (5°C) rearing environments. Using whole-genome bisulfite sequencing, we found 188 differentially methylated regions (DMRs) due to parental maturation temperature after controlling for family structure. By contrast, offspring rearing temperature had a negligible effect on offspring methylation. Stable intergenerational inheritance of DNA methylation and minimal plasticity in progeny could result in the transmission of acclimatory epigenetic states to offspring, priming them for a warming environment. Our findings have implications pertaining to the role of intergenerational epigenetic inheritance in response to ongoing climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clare J. Venney
- Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada G1 V 0A6
| | - Kyle W. Wellband
- Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada G1 V 0A6
| | - Eric Normandeau
- Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada G1 V 0A6
| | - Carolyne Houle
- Département de Biologie, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada J1 K 2R1
| | - Dany Garant
- Département de Biologie, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada J1 K 2R1
| | - Céline Audet
- Institut des sciences de la mer de Rimouski (ISMER), Université du Québec à Rimouski (UQAR), Rimouski, QC, Canada G5 L 2Z9
| | - Louis Bernatchez
- Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada G1 V 0A6
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4
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Huntsman BM, Merriam ER, Rota C, Petty JT. Non‐native species limit stream restoration benefits for brook trout. Restor Ecol 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/rec.13678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Brock M. Huntsman
- Division of Forestry and Natural Resources West Virginia University Morgantown West Virginia 26506 USA
- California Water Science Center, United States Geological Survey Sacramento California 95819 USA
| | - Eric R. Merriam
- Division of Forestry and Natural Resources West Virginia University Morgantown West Virginia 26506 USA
- US Army Corps of Engineers Pittsburgh PA 15222 USA
| | - Christopher Rota
- Division of Forestry and Natural Resources West Virginia University Morgantown West Virginia 26506 USA
| | - J. Todd Petty
- Division of Forestry and Natural Resources West Virginia University Morgantown West Virginia 26506 USA
- Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation Clemson University Clemson SC 29634 USA
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5
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Flow-Mediated Vulnerability of Source Waters to Elevated TDS in an Appalachian River Basin. WATER 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/w12020384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Widespread salinization—and, in a broader sense, an increase in all total dissolved solids (TDS)—is threatening freshwater ecosystems and the services they provide (e.g., drinking water provision). We used a mixed modeling approach to characterize long-term (2010–2018) spatio-temporal variability in TDS within the Monongahela River basin and used this information to assess the extent and drivers of vulnerability. The West Fork River was predicted to exceed 500 mg/L a total of 133 days. Occurrence and duration (maximum = 28 days) of—and thus vulnerability to—exceedances within the West Fork River were driven by low flows. Projected decreases in mean daily discharge by ≤10 cfs resulted in an additional 34 days exceeding 500 mg/L. Consistently low TDS within the Tygart Valley and Cheat Rivers reduced vulnerability of the receiving Monongahela River to elevated TDS which was neither observed (maximum = 419 mg/L) nor predicted (341 mg/L) to exceed the secondary drinking water standard of 500 mg/L. Potential changes in future land use and/or severity of low-flow conditions could increase vulnerability of the Monongahela River to elevated TDS. Management should include efforts to increase assimilative capacity by identifying and decreasing sources of TDS. Upstream reservoirs could be managed toward low-flow thresholds; however, further study is needed to ensure all authorized reservoir purposes could be maintained.
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Young D, Zégre N, Edwards P, Fernandez R. Assessing streamflow sensitivity of forested headwater catchments to disturbance and climate change in the central Appalachian Mountains region, USA. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 694:133382. [PMID: 31756790 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2019] [Revised: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 07/12/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Forest headwater catchments are critical sources of water, but climate change and disturbance may threaten their ability to produce reliable and abundant water supplies. Quantifying how climate change and forest disturbances individually and interactively alter streamflow provides important insights into the stability and availability of water derived from headwater catchments that are particularly sensitive to change. We used long-term water balance data, forest inventory measurements, and a multiple-methods approach using Budyko decomposition and paired catchment models to assess how climate change and forest disturbances interact to alter streamflow in five headwater catchments located along a disturbance gradient in the Appalachian Mountains, USA. We found that disturbance was the dominant driver of streamflow changes; disturbed catchments were more sensitive to climate change than the undisturbed catchment; and disturbance was an important factor for a catchment's sensitivity to climate change, principally through changes in species composition and xylem anatomy. Streamflow sensitivity to climate change increased with increasing proportion of diffuse porous species, suggesting that not all disturbances are equal when it comes to streamflow sensitivity to climate change. Climate change effects were masked by disturbance in catchments with high magnitude/low frequency disturbances and amplified in a catchment with low magnitude/high frequency disturbance. Furthermore, critical assumptions of Budyko decomposition were assessed to evaluate the efficacy of applying decomposition to the headwater scale. Our study demonstrates the efficacy and usefulness of applying decomposition to scales potentially useful to resource managers and decision makers. Our study contributes to a more thorough understanding about the impacts of climate change on disturbed headwater catchments that will help managers to better prepare for and adapt to future changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Young
- School of Forestry and Natural Resources, West Virginia University, 322 Percival Hall, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
| | - Nicolas Zégre
- School of Forestry and Natural Resources, West Virginia University, 322 Percival Hall, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA.
| | - Pamela Edwards
- US Forest Service, Northern Research Station, PO Box 404, Parsons, WV 26287, USA
| | - Rodrigo Fernandez
- School of Forestry and Natural Resources, West Virginia University, 322 Percival Hall, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
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Trego CT, Merriam ER, Petty JT. Non‐native trout limit native brook trout access to space and thermal refugia in a restored large‐river system. Restor Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/rec.12925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Cory T. Trego
- Division of Forestry and Natural Resources West Virginia University Morgantown WV 26505 U.S.A
| | - Eric R. Merriam
- Division of Forestry and Natural Resources West Virginia University Morgantown WV 26505 U.S.A
| | - J. Todd Petty
- Division of Forestry and Natural Resources West Virginia University Morgantown WV 26505 U.S.A
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8
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Merriam ER, Petty JT. Stream channel restoration increases climate resiliency in a thermally vulnerable Appalachian river. Restor Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/rec.12980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Eric R. Merriam
- School of Natural Resources West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506‐6125 U.S.A
| | - J. T. Petty
- School of Natural Resources West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506‐6125 U.S.A
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Pohle I, Helliwell R, Aube C, Gibbs S, Spencer M, Spezia L. Citizen science evidence from the past century shows that Scottish rivers are warming. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 659:53-65. [PMID: 30594861 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Revised: 12/20/2018] [Accepted: 12/21/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Salmonid species are highly sensitive to river water temperature. Although long-term river temperature monitoring is essential for assessing drivers of change in ecological systems, these data are rarely available from statutory monitoring. We utilized a 105-year citizen science data set of river water temperature from the River Spey, North-East Scotland, gathered during the fishing season (April-October) between 1912 and 2016. As there were gaps in the records we applied generalised additive models to reconstruct long-term daily river temperature in the fishing season from air temperature, cumulative air temperature, day length and runoff. For that, continuous hydrometeorological data have been obtained from statutory monitoring and process-based models. Long-term warming trends of river temperature, namely an increase of 0.2 K per decade after 1961, have been mostly related to increasing air temperature of the same magnitude. Indirect impacts of rising air temperatures include less snow accumulation and snow melt as well as earlier snow melt. The snow free period starts around 2 days earlier per decade throughout the study period and 7 days earlier per decade after 1965. Consequently, the contribution of snow melt and its cooling properties to river temperature in spring are declining. Citizen science delivered a data set that filled a vital knowledge gap in the long-term historical assessment of river temperatures. Such information provides a robust basis for future assessments of global change and can help inform decision-makers about the potential importance of enhancing the resilience of rivers and aquatic ecology to climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ina Pohle
- Environmental and Biochemical Sciences, The James Hutton Institute, Aberdeen AB15 8QH, United Kingdom.
| | - Rachel Helliwell
- Environmental and Biochemical Sciences, The James Hutton Institute, Aberdeen AB15 8QH, United Kingdom
| | - Caroline Aube
- Environmental and Biochemical Sciences, The James Hutton Institute, Aberdeen AB15 8QH, United Kingdom
| | - Sheila Gibbs
- Environmental and Biochemical Sciences, The James Hutton Institute, Aberdeen AB15 8QH, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Spencer
- Land Economy, Environment & Society, Scotland's Rural College, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, United Kingdom
| | - Luigi Spezia
- Biomathematics and Statistics Scotland, Aberdeen AB15 8QH, United Kingdom
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10
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Conservation planning at the intersection of landscape and climate change: brook trout in the Chesapeake Bay watershed. Ecosphere 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.2585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
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11
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Bruce SA, Wright JJ. Estimates of gene flow and dispersal in wild riverine Brook Trout ( Salvelinus fontinalis) populations reveal ongoing migration and introgression from stocked fish. Ecol Evol 2018; 8:11410-11422. [PMID: 30598745 PMCID: PMC6303771 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.4556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2018] [Revised: 08/16/2018] [Accepted: 08/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
As anthropogenic impacts accelerate changes to landscapes across the globe, understanding how genetic population structure is influenced by habitat features and dispersal is key to preserving evolutionary potential at the species level. Furthermore, knowledge of these interactions is essential to identifying potential constraints on local adaptation and for the development of effective management strategies. We examined these issues in Brook Trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) populations residing in the Upper Hudson River watershed of New York State by investigating the spatial genetic structure of over 350 fish collected from 14 different sampling locations encompassing three river systems. Population genetic analyses of microsatellite data suggest that fish in the area exhibit varying degrees of introgression from nearby State-directed supplementation activities. Levels of introgression in these populations correlate with water-way distance to stocking sites, although genetic population structure at the level of individual tributaries as well as their larger, parent river systems is also detectable and is dictated by migration and influenced by habitat connectivity. These findings represent a significant contribution to the current literature surrounding Brook Trout migration and dispersal, especially as it relates to larger interconnected systems. This work also suggests that stocking activities may have far-reaching consequences that are not directly limited to the immediate area where stocking occurs. The framework and data presented here may aid in the development of other local aquatic species-focused conservation plans that incorporate molecular tools to answer complex questions regarding diversity mapping, and genetically important conservation units.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spencer A. Bruce
- Department of Biological SciencesUniversity at Albany – State University of New YorkAlbanyNew York
- New York State MuseumAlbanyNew York
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12
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Blum AG, Kanno Y, Letcher BH. Seasonal streamflow extremes are key drivers of Brook Trout young‐of‐the‐year abundance. Ecosphere 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.2356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Annalise G. Blum
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Tufts University 200 College Avenue Medford Massachusetts 02155 USA
- U.S. Geological Survey 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive Reston Virginia 20192 USA
| | - Yoichiro Kanno
- Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology, and Graduate Degree Program in Ecology Colorado State University Fort Collins Colorado 80523 USA
| | - Benjamin H. Letcher
- Leetown Science Center S. O. Conte Anadromous Fish Research Center U.S. Geological Survey One Migratory Way, Turners Falls Massachusetts 01376 USA
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13
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Merriam ER, Petty JT, Maloney KO, Young JA, Faulkner SP, Slonecker ET, Milheim LE, Hailegiorgis A, Niles J. Brook trout distributional response to unconventional oil and gas development: Landscape context matters. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 628-629:338-349. [PMID: 29444486 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.02.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2017] [Revised: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 02/06/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
We conducted a large-scale assessment of unconventional oil and gas (UOG) development effects on brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) distribution. We compiled 2231 brook trout collection records from the Upper Susquehanna River Watershed, USA. We used boosted regression tree (BRT) analysis to predict occurrence probability at the 1:24,000 stream-segment scale as a function of natural and anthropogenic landscape and climatic attributes. We then evaluated the importance of landscape context (i.e., pre-existing natural habitat quality and anthropogenic degradation) in modulating the effects of UOG on brook trout distribution under UOG development scenarios. BRT made use of 5 anthropogenic (28% relative influence) and 7 natural (72% relative influence) variables to model occurrence with a high degree of accuracy [Area Under the Receiver Operating Curve (AUC)=0.85 and cross-validated AUC=0.81]. UOG development impacted 11% (n=2784) of streams and resulted in a loss of predicted occurrence in 126 (4%). Most streams impacted by UOG had unsuitable underlying natural habitat quality (n=1220; 44%). Brook trout were predicted to be absent from an additional 26% (n=733) of streams due to pre-existing non-UOG land uses (i.e., agriculture, residential and commercial development, or historic mining). Streams with a predicted and observed (via existing pre- and post-disturbance fish sampling records) loss of occurrence due to UOG tended to have intermediate natural habitat quality and/or intermediate levels of non-UOG stress. Simulated development of permitted but undeveloped UOG wells (n=943) resulted in a loss of predicted occurrence in 27 additional streams. Loss of occurrence was strongly dependent upon landscape context, suggesting effects of current and future UOG development are likely most relevant in streams near the probability threshold due to pre-existing habitat degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric R Merriam
- School of Natural Resources, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506-6125, USA.
| | - J Todd Petty
- School of Natural Resources, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506-6125, USA
| | - Kelly O Maloney
- U.S. Geological Survey, Leetown Science Center, 11649 Leetown Rd., Kearneysville, WV 25430, USA
| | - John A Young
- U.S. Geological Survey, Leetown Science Center, 11649 Leetown Rd., Kearneysville, WV 25430, USA
| | - Stephen P Faulkner
- U.S. Geological Survey, Leetown Science Center, 11649 Leetown Rd., Kearneysville, WV 25430, USA
| | - E Terrence Slonecker
- U.S. Geological Survey, Eastern Geographic Science Center, 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive, 521 National Center, Reston, VA 20192, USA
| | - Lesley E Milheim
- U.S. Geological Survey, Eastern Geographic Science Center, 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive, 521 National Center, Reston, VA 20192, USA
| | | | - Jonathan Niles
- Department of Biology, Susquehanna University, Selinsgrove, PA 17870, USA
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