Environmental implications and socioeconomic characterisation of Indian diets

Environmental imprints of agricultural and livestock produce: A scoping review from South Asian countries

BACKGROUND

Agricultural activities in 2020 have resulted in 5.5 billion tons of CO2 equivalent globally, which is expected to rise because the food system would have to grow 70% more food for the population in 2050. Research suggests that agricultural productivity in South Asian countries, will increase food security; however, the role of their food crops and livestock products in environmental imprints is uncertain. This review aimed to assess the environmental impacts resulting from pre- and post-production agricultural activities related to edible food crops and livestock products consumed in eight South Asian countries.

METHODS

Studies were retrieved using three databases (PubMed, Google Scholar and Science Direct) from 2011 to 2022. The protocol for this scoping review was not registered.

RESULTS

Twenty-seven studies met the inclusion criteria. Most studies were conducted in India. Twenty-four articles assessed greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions, followed by water footprints (n = 5), nitrogen and phosphorus (N&P) emissions (n = 4), and land requirements (n = 4). The production of rice and wheat was identified as a significant contributor to GHG emissions. In India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, the production of livestock (meat/bovine/shrimp and milk) was reported to be harmful to the environment. Inconclusive data were retrieved for other environment variables.

CONCLUSIONS

Diversification in food production and cultivating additional coarse cereals (millets) offer opportunities for GHG reduction. Nevertheless, more comprehensive and longitudinal studies for South Asian countries are essential to make precise conclusions and validate the present review.

How the EAT-Lancet Commission on food in the Anthropocene influenced discourse and research on food systems: a systematic review covering the first 2 years post-publication

In 2019, the EAT-Lancet Commission's report on food in the Anthropocene presented a planetary heath diet to improve health while reducing the environmental effect of food systems globally. We assessed EAT-Lancet's immediate influence on academic research and debate by conducting a systematic review of articles citing the Commission and others published from January, 2019, to April, 2021. The Commission influenced methods, results, or discourse for 192 (7·5%) of 2560 citing articles, stimulating cross-disciplinary research and debate across life sciences (47%), health and medical sciences (42%), and social sciences (11%). Sentiment analysis of 76 critiquing articles indicated that opinions were, on average, more positive than negative. Positive sentiments centred on benefits for informing policy, public health, and raising public awareness. Negative sentiments included insufficient attention to socioeconomic dimensions, feasibility, and environmental effects other than emissions. Empirical articles predominantly evaluated the effects of changed diets or food production on the environment and wellbeing (29%), compared current diets with EAT-Lancet recommendations (12%), or informed future policy and research agendas (20%). Despite limitations in EAT-Lancet's method, scope, and implementation feasibility, the academic community supported these recommendations. A broad suite of research needs was identified focusing on the effects of food processing, socioeconomic and political drivers of diet and health, and optimising consumption or production for environment and health.

India consists of multiple food systems with scoioeconomic and environmental variations

Agriculture in India accounts for 18% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and uses significant land and water. Various socioeconomic factors and food subsidies influence diets in India. Indian food systems face the challenge of sustainably nourishing the 1.3 billion population. However, existing studies focus on a few food system components, and holistic analysis is still missing. We identify Indian food systems covering six food system components: food consumption, production, processing, policy, environmental footprints, and socioeconomic factors from the latest Indian household consumer expenditure survey. We identify 10 Indian food systems using k-means cluster analysis on 15 food system indicators belonging to the six components. Based on the major source of calorie intake, we classify the ten food systems into production-based (3), subsidy-based (3), and market-based (4) food systems. Home-produced and subsidized food contribute up to 2000 kcal/consumer unit (CU)/day and 1651 kcal/CU/day, respectively, in these food systems. The calorie intake of 2158 to 3530 kcal/CU/day in the food systems reveals issues of malnutrition in India. Environmental footprints are commensurate with calorie intake in the food systems. Embodied GHG, land footprint, and water footprint estimates range from 1.30 to 2.19 kg CO2eq/CU/day, 3.89 to 6.04 m2/CU/day, and 2.02 to 3.16 m3/CU/day, respectively. Our study provides a holistic understanding of Indian food systems for targeted nutritional interventions on household malnutrition in India while also protecting planetary health.

Greenhouse gas emissions, water footprint, and ecological footprint of food purchases according to their degree of processing in Brazilian metropolitan areas: a time-series study from 1987 to 2018

BACKGROUND

The consumption of ultra-processed foods has increased worldwide and has been related to the occurrence of obesity and other non-communicable diseases. However, little is known about the environmental effects of ultra-processed foods. We aimed to assess the temporal trends in greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE), water footprint, and ecological footprint of food purchases in Brazilian metropolitan areas, and how these are affected by the amount of food processing.

METHODS

In this time-series study, we used data from five Brazilian Household Budget Surveys (1987-88, 1995-96, 2002-03, 2008-09, 2017-18) to calculate GHGE, water footprint, and ecological footprint per 1000 kcal of food and beverages purchased. Food items were classified into NOVA food groups: unprocessed or minimally processed foods (G1); processed culinary ingredients (G2); processed foods (G3); and ultra-processed foods (G4). We calculated the proportion each NOVA food group contributes to daily kcal per person. Linear regression was performed to evaluate trends of the environmental impacts across the years.

FINDINGS

Between 1987-88 and 2017-18, diet-related GHGE increased by 21% (from 1538·6 g CO₂ equivalent [CO₂e] per 1000 kcal [95% CI 1473·3-1604·0] to 1866·0 g CO₂e per 1000 kcal [1788·0-1944·0]; p_trend<0·0001), diet-related water footprint increased by 22% (from 1447·2 L/1000 kcal [95% CI 1400·7-1493·8] to 1769·1 L/1000 kcal [1714·5-1823·7]; p_trend<0·0001), and diet-related ecological footprint increased by 17% (from 9·69 m²/1000 kcal [95% CI 9·33-10·05] to 11·36 m²/1000 kcal [10·91-11·81]; p_trend<0·0001). We found that the change in the environmental indicators over time varied between NOVA food groups. We did not find evidence of a change in the environmental indicators for G1 foods over time. GHGE from G2 foods decreased by 18% (p_trend<0·0001), whereas GHGE from G4 foods increased by 245% (p_trend<0·0001). The water footprint from G2 foods decreased by 17% (p_trend<0·0001) whereas the water footprint from G4 foods increased by 233% (p_trend<0·0001). The ecological footprint from G2 foods decreased by 13% (p_trend<0·0001), whereas the ecological footprint from G3 foods increased by 49% (p_trend<0·0001) and from G4 foods increased by 183% (p_trend<0·0001). We found no significant change in contribution by any other NOVA food groups to any of the three environmental indicators over the study period.

INTERPRETATION

The environmental effects of the Brazilian diet have increased over the past three decades along with increased effects from ultra-processed foods. This means that dietary patterns in Brazil are becoming potentially more harmful to human and planetary health. Therefore, a shift in the current trend would be needed to enhance sustainable healthy food systems.

FUNDING

Science and Technologies Facilities Council-Global Challenges Research Fund.