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Tang S, Zhang Q, Xu H, Zhu M, Nahid Pervez M, Wu B, Zhao Y. Fabric structure and polymer composition as key contributors to micro(nano)plastic contamination in face masks. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 476:135089. [PMID: 38959827 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.135089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2024] [Revised: 06/25/2024] [Accepted: 07/01/2024] [Indexed: 07/05/2024]
Abstract
The surge in face mask use due to COVID-19 has raised concerns about micro(nano)plastics (MNPs) from masks. Herein, focusing on fabric structure and polymer composition, we investigated MNP generation characteristics, mechanisms, and potential risks of surgical polypropylene (PP) and fashionable polyurethane (PU) masks during their wearing and photoaging based on stereomicroscope, μ-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (μ-FTIR), and scanning electron microscope (SEM) techniques. Compared with new PP and PU masks (66 ± 16 MPs/PP-mask, 163 ± 83 MPs/PU-mask), single- and multiple-used masks exhibited remarkably increased MP type and abundance (600-1867 MPs/PP-mask, 607-2167 MPs/PU-mask). Disinfection exacerbated endogenous MP generation in masks, with washing (416 MPs/PP-mask, 30,708 MPs/PU-mask) being the most prominent compared to autoclaving (219 MPs/PP-mask, 553 MPs/PU-mask) and alcohol spray (162 MPs/PP-mask, 18,333 MPs/PU-mask). Photoaging led to massive generation of MPs (8.8 × 104-3.7 × 105 MPs/PP-layer, 1.0 × 105 MPs/PU-layer) and NPs (5.2 × 109-3.6 × 1013 NPs/PP-layer, 3.5 × 1012 NPs/PU-layer) from masks, presenting highly fabric structure-dependent aging modes as "fragmentation" for fine fiber-structure PP mask and "erosion" for 3D mesh-structure PU mask. The MNPs derived from PP/PU mask caused significant deformities of Zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae. These findings underscore the potential adverse effects of masks on humans and aquatic organisms, advocating to enhance proper use and rational disposal for masks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuai Tang
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Biotransformation of Organic Solid Waste, Technology Innovation Center for Land Spatial Eco-restoration in Metropolitan Area of Ministry of Natural Resources, Shanghai Key Laboratory for Urban Ecological Process and Eco-Restoration, Institute of Eco-Chongming and School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Qun Zhang
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Biotransformation of Organic Solid Waste, Technology Innovation Center for Land Spatial Eco-restoration in Metropolitan Area of Ministry of Natural Resources, Shanghai Key Laboratory for Urban Ecological Process and Eco-Restoration, Institute of Eco-Chongming and School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China; School of Public Health, Shandong Second Medical University, Weifang 261053, China
| | - Haowen Xu
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 999077, Hong Kong, China
| | - Mengyuan Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Md Nahid Pervez
- Department of Environmental and Sustainable Engineering, University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany, NY 12222, USA
| | - Bing Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Yaping Zhao
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Biotransformation of Organic Solid Waste, Technology Innovation Center for Land Spatial Eco-restoration in Metropolitan Area of Ministry of Natural Resources, Shanghai Key Laboratory for Urban Ecological Process and Eco-Restoration, Institute of Eco-Chongming and School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China.
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Tan Z, Deng H, Ou H, Liao Z, Wu X, Liu R, Ou H. Microplastics and volatile organic compounds released from face masks after disinfection: Layers and materials differences. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 917:170286. [PMID: 38280606 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2023] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 01/29/2024]
Abstract
Effective disinfection methods are critical for ensuring the reusability of masks, yet these methods may inadvertently introduce health concerns associated with microplastics (MPs) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). This study investigated the impact of ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI) and sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) bleaching on mask filter layers composed of four distinct materials. Our results revealed that UVGI induced more pronounced damage compared to bleaching, leading to the significant release of both MPs and VOCs. After UVGI treatment at conventional disinfection doses, meltblown (MB) fabrics released MPs reaching 864 ± 182 μg/g (92 ± 19 particles/g). For all filter layers, the quantity of released MPs followed the order: MB > HDPE>PU ≈ NW. These MPs were identified as degraded debris from the mask filter layers. The specific VOCs generated varied depending on the material composition. Non-woven (NW) and MB fabrics, both comprised of polypropylene, predominantly produced various branched aliphatic hydrocarbons and their derivative oxides. The cotton-like fabric, composed of high-density polyethylene, primarily emitted different linear aliphatic hydrocarbons and oxygenates. In contrast, the polyurethane filter layer of reusable masks released aromatic compounds, nitrogenous compounds, and their oxidation products. The formation of VOCs was primarily attributed to bond breakage and oxidative damage to the filter structure resulting from the disinfection process. In summary, as UVGI induced higher yields of MPs and VOCs compared to bleaching, the latter would be a safer option for mask disinfection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zongyi Tan
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China; Center for Environmental Microplastics Studies, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Haiyang Deng
- CECEP Construction Engineering Design Institute Limited Company, Chengdu 610052, China
| | - Huali Ou
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Zhianqi Liao
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China; Center for Environmental Microplastics Studies, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Xinni Wu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China; Center for Environmental Microplastics Studies, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Ruijuan Liu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China; Center for Environmental Microplastics Studies, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Huase Ou
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China; Center for Environmental Microplastics Studies, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China.
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Mishra A, Mohan Viswanathan P, Ramasamy N, Panchatcharam S, Sabarathinam C. Spatiotemporal distribution of microplastics in Miri coastal area, NW Borneo: inference from a periodical observation. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:103225-103243. [PMID: 37688695 PMCID: PMC10567912 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-29582-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/11/2023]
Abstract
The current study aims to investigate the spatiotemporal distribution of microplastics (MPs) in the Miri coast, targeting their occurrences, characterisation, and potential sources. For a periodical study, coastal sediments were collected from three different time intervals (monsoon, post-monsoon, and post-COVID) and subjected to stereomicroscope, ATR-FTIR, and SEM-EDX analyses. These results show a significant increase of MPs in post-COVID samples by approximately 218% and 148% comparatively with monsoon and post-monsoon samples, respectively. The highest concentration of MPs was detected near the river mouths and industrial areas where the waste discharge rate and anthropogenic activities dominate. Fibre-type MPs are the most abundant, with an average of nearly 64%, followed by fragments, films, microbeads, and foams. The most dominant polymer types were polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and polyester (PET). Overall, the current study shows a better understanding of MPs occurrence and potential sources in the Miri coastal area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anshuman Mishra
- Department of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Engineering and Science, Curtin University, Malaysia, CDT 250, 98009, Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia
| | - Prasanna Mohan Viswanathan
- Department of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Engineering and Science, Curtin University, Malaysia, CDT 250, 98009, Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia.
| | - Nagarajan Ramasamy
- Department of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Engineering and Science, Curtin University, Malaysia, CDT 250, 98009, Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia
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Cao J, Shi Y, Yan M, Zhu H, Chen S, Xu K, Wang L, Sun H. Face Mask: As a Source or Protector of Human Exposure to Microplastics and Phthalate Plasticizers? TOXICS 2023; 11:87. [PMID: 36850963 PMCID: PMC9967050 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11020087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2022] [Revised: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Wearing masks has become the norm during the Coronavirus disease pandemic. Masks can reportedly interface with air pollutants and release microplastics and plastic additives such as phthalates. In this study, an experimental device was set up to simulate the impact of five kinds of masks (activated-carbon, N95, surgical, cotton, and fashion masks) on the risk of humans inhaling microplastics and phthalates during wearing. The residual concentrations of seven major phthalates ranged from 296 to 72,049 ng/g (median: 1242 ng/g), with the lowest and the highest concentrations detected in surgical (median: 367 ng/g) and fashion masks (median: 37,386 ng/g), respectively. During the whole inhalation simulation process, fragmented and 20-100 μm microplastics accounted for the largest, with a rapid release during the first six hours. After one day's wearing, that of 6 h, while wearing different masks, 25-135 and 65-298 microplastics were inhaled indoors and outdoors, respectively. The total estimated daily intake of phthalates with indoor and outdoor conditions by inhalation and skin exposure ranged from 1.2 to 13 and 0.43 to 14 ng/kg bw/d, respectively. Overall, surgical masks yield a protective effect, while cotton and fashion masks increase human exposure to microplastics and phthalates both indoors and outdoors compared to no mask wearing. This study observed possible risks from common facemasks and provided suggestions to consumers for selecting suitable masks to reduce exposure risks from microplastics and phthalate acid.
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Liang H, Wang N, Liu D, Ge W, Song N, Wang F, Chai C. Release of microplastics and nanoplastics in water from disposable surgical masks after disinfection. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2022; 184:114184. [PMID: 36183509 PMCID: PMC9525138 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.114184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Revised: 09/03/2022] [Accepted: 09/24/2022] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
During the COVID-19 pandemic, disposable surgical masks were generally disinfected and reused due to mask shortages. Herein, the role of disinfected masks as a source of microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) was investigated. The amount of MPs and NPs released from masks disinfected by UV ranged from 1054 ± 106 to 2472 ± 70 and from 2.55 ± 0.22 × 109 to 6.72 ± 0.27 × 109 particles/piece, respectively, comparable to that of the undisinfected masks, and the MPs were changed to small-sized particles. The amount of MPs and NPs released after alcohol and steam treatment were respectively lower and higher than those from undisinfected masks, and MPs were shifted to small-sized particles. The amount of MPs and NPs released in water after autoclaving was lower than for undisinfected masks. In all, the amount of fibers released after disinfection decreased greatly, and certain disinfection processes were found to increase the amount of small-sized NPs released from masks into aqueous environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Liang
- School of Resources and Environment, Qingdao Engineering Research Center for Rural Environment, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao 266109, China
| | - Na Wang
- School of Resources and Environment, Qingdao Engineering Research Center for Rural Environment, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao 266109, China
| | - Di Liu
- School of Resources and Environment, Qingdao Engineering Research Center for Rural Environment, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao 266109, China
| | - Wei Ge
- School of Life Sciences, Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Applied Mycology, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao 266109, China
| | - Ningning Song
- School of Resources and Environment, Qingdao Engineering Research Center for Rural Environment, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao 266109, China
| | - Fangli Wang
- School of Resources and Environment, Qingdao Engineering Research Center for Rural Environment, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao 266109, China
| | - Chao Chai
- School of Resources and Environment, Qingdao Engineering Research Center for Rural Environment, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao 266109, China.
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Rathinamoorthy R, Raja Balasaraswathi S. Mitigation of microfibers release from disposable masks - An analysis of structural properties. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 214:114106. [PMID: 35987377 PMCID: PMC9385379 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.114106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2022] [Revised: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The use of disposable face masks increased rapidly among the general public to control the COVID-19 spread. Eventually, it increased the disposal of masks and their associated impacts on environmental pollution. Hence, this study aims to analyze the impact of nonwoven fabric structural parameters and weathering on the microfiber release characteristics. Spunbond polypropylene nonwoven with four different weights and meltblown nonwoven with two different weights were used in this study to analyze microfiber release at dry, and wet conditions to simulate improper disposal in the environment. Exposure to sunlight significantly increases the microfiber release from 35 to 50% for spunbond fabric and 56-89% for meltblown fabric. Weathering in sunlight structurally affected the tensile properties of the polypropylene fibers due to photodegradation. The study showed that each mask can produce 1.5 × 102 and 3.45 × 101 mg of microfiber/mask respectively in dry and wet states. In the case of structural parameters, a higher GSM (grams per square meter), abrasion resistance, bursting strength, and thickness showed a positive correlation with microfiber release in both fabrics. Significantly a higher microfiber release was reported with meltblown fabric than the spunbond for a given GSM. The presence of finer fibers and more fibers per unit area in meltblown fabric was noted as the main cause. Nonwoven fabric GSM and the number of fibers in a specific area showed a higher influence on microfiber release. Based on the mask consumption reported in the literature, India alone can produce around 4.27 × 102 tons of microfibers/week as an average of dry and wet conditions. The study suggests that the proper selection of physical parameters can significantly reduce the microfiber fiber release at all stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Rathinamoorthy
- Department of Fashion Technology, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, India.
| | - S Raja Balasaraswathi
- Department of Fashion Technology, National Institute of Fashion Technology, Bengaluru, India
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Li F, Ni Y, Cong J, Shen C, Ji P, Wang H, Yin L, Xu C. Wiping conditions and fabric properties influenced the microfiber shedding from non-woven products. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2022; 24:1855-1866. [PMID: 36125181 DOI: 10.1039/d2em00292b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Disposable wipes and masks have come to be considered as underestimated sources of microfiber generation since the emergence of COVID-19. However, research into the creation of microfibers due to wiping with these non-woven products is scarce, and the potential effects of fabric properties on shedding behavior are unclear. This study investigated microfiber release from 7 wet wipes, 5 dry wipes, and 4 masks in response to the use of simulated daily wiping conditions on artificial skin. The dry wipes (77-568 p per sheet) shed more microfibers than the wet ones (21-190 p per sheet) after 2, 10, or 50 wiping cycles under a 9.8 N wiping force. In addition, an average of 56 microfibers could be released from per gram of wipe, and each square centimeter of wipe could release about 1.18 microfibers during wiping. Masks shed fewer microfibers than wipes due to the excellent shedding resistance of spunbond nonwoven fabrics and the strengthened mechanical properties granted by bonding points. Cellulose, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and polypropylene (PP) were the major polymers in the microfibers shed by wipes, and the microfibers from masks were all PP. With regard to the influencing factors, the number of microfibers shed from wipes was positively associated with the number of wiping cycles (r = 0.983 and 0.960, p < 0.01) and wiping force (r = 0.980, p < 0.05), while it was negatively correlated with the moisture content (r = -0.992, p < 0.01). Interestingly, a stronger fiber entanglement degree in the wipes significantly improved the resistance to microfiber generation (r = -0.664, p < 0.05). The results highlighted for the first time that the bending coefficient (β = -5.05; 95% CI: -7.71, -2.40; p = 0.002) and fiber extraction force (β = -0.077; 95% CI: -0.123, -0.030; p = 0.005) significantly reduced the tendency for microfiber shedding. Although the number of microfibers shed from wiping was lower than those from domestic washing, there is still an urgent need to control the microfiber shedding tendencies of non-woven products through improving the manufacturing processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Li
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, China.
- Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Yifan Ni
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, China.
| | - Junhao Cong
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, China.
| | - Chensi Shen
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, China.
| | - Peng Ji
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Innovation Center for Textile Science and Technology, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, China
| | - Huaping Wang
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Innovation Center for Textile Science and Technology, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, China
| | - Lanjun Yin
- Shenzhen Purcotton Technology Co., Ltd, Shenzhen, 518053, China
| | - Chenye Xu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, China.
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Zuri G, Oró-Nolla B, Torres-Agulló A, Karanasiou A, Lacorte S. Migration of Microplastics and Phthalates from Face Masks to Water. Molecules 2022; 27:6859. [PMID: 36296451 PMCID: PMC9608222 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27206859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 10/04/2022] [Indexed: 08/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Since the outbreak of COVID-19, face masks have been introduced in the complex strategy of infection prevention and control. Face masks consist of plastic polymers and additives such as phthalates. The aim of this study was to evaluate the migration of microplastics (MP) and phthalates from face masks to water. Four types of masks including FFP2 masks and surgical were studied. Masks were first characterized to determine the different layers and the material used for their fabrication. Then, masks were cut into 20 pieces of 0.5 cm2, including all their layers, placed in water, and the migration of MP and phthalates was evaluated according to the conditions stated in EU Regulation No 10/2011 on plastic materials and articles intended to come into contact with food. For MP, the morphological analysis (shape, dimension, particle count) was performed using a stereomicroscope, while the identification of both masks and MP released was conducted using μ-Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (µ-FT-IR). Migration of phthalates was assessed by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (UPLC-MS/MS). Face masks analyzed in the present study were made of atactic polypropylene (PP) as stated by the manufacturer. The μ-FT-IR confirmed that PP and polyamide (PA) were released as fragments, while both PP and polyester (PES) were released as fibers. In addition, 4 phthalates were identified at concentrations between 2.34 and 21.0 µg/mask. This study shows that the migration study can be applied to evaluate the potential release of MP and phthalates from face masks to water and could give a hint for the potential impact of their incorrect disposal on the aquatic resources.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Silvia Lacorte
- Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research of the Spanish Research Council (IDAEA-CSIC), Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain; (G.Z.); (B.O.-N.); (A.T.-A.); (A.K.)
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Sendra M, Rodriguez-Romero A, Yeste MP, Blasco J, Tovar-Sánchez A. Products released from surgical face masks can provoke cytotoxicity in the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 841:156611. [PMID: 35691357 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Revised: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Surgical face masks are more present than ever as personal protective equipment due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In this work, we show that the contents of regular surgical masks: i) polypropylene microfibres and ii) some added metals such as: Al, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn and Ba, may be toxic to some marine life. This work has got two objectives: i) to study the release rate of the products from face masks in marine water and ii) to assess the toxicity in Phaeodactylum tricornutum of these by-products. To achieve these two objectives, we performed release kinetic experiments by adding masks in different stages of fragmentation to marine water (i.e. whole face masks and fragments of them 1.52 ± 0.86 mm). Released microfibres were found after one month in shaking marine water; 0.33 ± 0.24 and 21.13 ± 13.19 fibres·mL-1 were collected from the whole and fragmented face masks, respectively. Significant amounts of dissolved metals such as Mn, Zn and Ni, as well as functional groups only in the water containing the face mask fragments were detected. Water from both treatments was employed to study its toxicity on the marine diatom. Only the water from the face mask fragments showed a significant, dose-dependent, decrease in cell density in P. tricornutum; 53.09 % lower than in the controls. Although the water from the face mask fragments showed greater effects on the microalgae population than the water from the whole face mask, the latter treatment did show significant changes in the photosynthetic apparatus and intrinsic properties of the cells. These results indicate that during fragmentation and degradation face masks a significant chemical print can be observed in the marine environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Sendra
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Science, Faculty of Sciences, University of Burgos, Plaza Misael Bañuelos, 09001 Burgos, Spain.
| | - Araceli Rodriguez-Romero
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Marine and Environmental Sciences, Marine Research Institute (INMAR), University of Cadiz, Cadiz, Spain
| | - María Pilar Yeste
- Department of Material Science, Metallurgical Engineering and Inorganic Chemistry, University of Cádiz, Spain
| | - Julián Blasco
- Department of Ecology and Coastal Management, Institute of Marine Sciences of Andalusia (CSIC), Campus Río S. Pedro, 11510, Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain
| | - Antonio Tovar-Sánchez
- Department of Ecology and Coastal Management, Institute of Marine Sciences of Andalusia (CSIC), Campus Río S. Pedro, 11510, Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain
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Using the concept of circular economy to reduce the environmental impact of COVID-19 face mask waste. SUSTAINABLE MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGIES 2022. [PMCID: PMC9355742 DOI: 10.1016/j.susmat.2022.e00475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
COVID-19 pandemic has posed severe threats to the society globally. World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines suggest that people wear face masks as a precautionary measure daily. This has resulted in the generation of massive amounts of mask-associated waste in the environment. Owing to the criticality of the epidemic, there has not been a large-scale investigation on where to discard masks, making this situation daunting. As the pandemic continues, the use of masks continues to increase; repeated use and disposal of masks has become an imperative issue. Most disposable masks comprise chemical fibers in the filter layer. Without proper treatment and disposal, these large amounts of chemical waste will eventually flow into rivers or oceans, leading to serious pollution. Therefore, to reduce the negative effects on the marine environment, it is crucial that we produce reusable masks and reduce disposable wearing habits. This study aimed to resolve this challenge using textile materials created by recycling fish-scale waste. Functional and comfortable masks manufactured without chemical additives to achieve multiple functions can increase the willingness to wear and be reused. Hence, product use can be prolonged, and the use of disposable masks can be curtailed. The product manufactured herein is biodegradable in nature, thus conforming to the green sustainable initiative.
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Lordelo R, Botelho JRS, Morais PV, de Sousa HC, Branco R, Dias AMA, Reis MS. Evaluation of the Microbiological Effectiveness of Three Accessible Mask Decontamination Methods and Their Impact on Filtration, Air Permeability and Physicochemical Properties. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19116567. [PMID: 35682153 PMCID: PMC9180249 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19116567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Revised: 05/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The need to secure public health and mitigate the environmental impact associated with the massified use of respiratory protective devices (RPD) has been raising awareness for the safe reuse of decontaminated masks by individuals and organizations. Among the decontamination treatments proposed, in this work, three methods with the potential to be adopted by households and organizations of different sizes were analysed: contact with nebulized hydrogen peroxide (H2O2); immersion in commercial bleach (NaClO) (sodium hypochlorite, 0.1% p/v); and contact with steam in microwave steam-sanitizing bags (steam bag). Their decontamination effectiveness was assessed using reference microorganisms following international standards (issued by ISO and FDA). Furthermore, the impact on filtration efficiency, air permeability and several physicochemical and structural characteristics of the masks, were evaluated for untreated masks and after 1, 5 and 10 cycles of treatment. Three types of RPD were analysed: surgical, KN95, and cloth masks. Results demonstrated that the H2O2 protocol sterilized KN95 and surgical masks (reduction of >6 log10 CFUs) and disinfected cloth masks (reduction of >3 log10 CFUs). The NaClO protocol sterilized surgical masks, and disinfected KN95 and cloth masks. Steam bags sterilized KN95 and disinfected surgical and cloth masks. No relevant impact was observed on filtration efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Lordelo
- Centre for Mechanical Engineering, Materials and Processes (CEMMPRE), Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, 3000-456 Coimbra, Portugal; (R.L.); (R.B.)
| | - José Rafael S. Botelho
- Chemical Process Engineering and Forest Products Research Centre (CIEPQPF), Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Coimbra, Rua Sílvio Lima, Pólo II—Pinhal de Marrocos, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal; (J.R.S.B.); (H.C.d.S.); (A.M.A.D.)
| | - Paula V. Morais
- Centre for Mechanical Engineering, Materials and Processes (CEMMPRE), Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, 3000-456 Coimbra, Portugal; (R.L.); (R.B.)
- Correspondence: (P.V.M.); (M.S.R.)
| | - Hermínio C. de Sousa
- Chemical Process Engineering and Forest Products Research Centre (CIEPQPF), Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Coimbra, Rua Sílvio Lima, Pólo II—Pinhal de Marrocos, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal; (J.R.S.B.); (H.C.d.S.); (A.M.A.D.)
| | - Rita Branco
- Centre for Mechanical Engineering, Materials and Processes (CEMMPRE), Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, 3000-456 Coimbra, Portugal; (R.L.); (R.B.)
| | - Ana M. A. Dias
- Chemical Process Engineering and Forest Products Research Centre (CIEPQPF), Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Coimbra, Rua Sílvio Lima, Pólo II—Pinhal de Marrocos, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal; (J.R.S.B.); (H.C.d.S.); (A.M.A.D.)
| | - Marco S. Reis
- Chemical Process Engineering and Forest Products Research Centre (CIEPQPF), Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Coimbra, Rua Sílvio Lima, Pólo II—Pinhal de Marrocos, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal; (J.R.S.B.); (H.C.d.S.); (A.M.A.D.)
- Correspondence: (P.V.M.); (M.S.R.)
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12
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Chen Z, Zhang W, Yang H, Min K, Jiang J, Lu D, Huang X, Qu G, Liu Q, Jiang G. A pandemic-induced environmental dilemma of disposable masks: solutions from the perspective of the life cycle. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2022; 24:649-674. [PMID: 35388819 DOI: 10.1039/d1em00509j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has swept the world and still afflicts humans. As an effective means of protection, wearing masks has been widely adopted by the general public. The massive use of disposable masks has raised some emerging environmental and bio-safety concerns: improper handling of used masks may transfer the attached pathogens to environmental media; disposable masks mainly consist of polypropylene (PP) fibers which may aggravate the global plastic pollution; and the risks of long-term wearing of masks are elusive. To maximize the utilization and minimize the risks, efforts have been made to improve the performance of masks (e.g., antivirus properties and filtration efficiency), extend their functions (e.g., respiration monitoring and acting as a sampling device), develop new disinfection methods, and recycle masks. Despite that, from the perspective of the life cycle (from production, usage, and discard to disposal), comprehensive solutions are urgently needed to solve the environmental dilemma of disposable masks in both technologies (e.g., efficient use of raw materials, prolonging the service life, and enabling biodegradation) and policies (e.g., stricter industry criteria and garbage sorting).
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Affiliation(s)
- Zigu Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China.
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Weican Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China.
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Hang Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China.
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Ke Min
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China.
- Key Laboratory of Phytochemical R&D of Hunan Province, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology & Traditional Chinese Medicine Research, Hunan Normal University, Changsha 410081, China
| | - Jie Jiang
- Shenzhen Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Dawei Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China.
| | - Xiu Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China.
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Guangbo Qu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China.
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Qian Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China.
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- Institute of Environment and Health, Jianghan University, Wuhan 430056, China
| | - Guibin Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China.
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
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13
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Delgado-Gallardo J, Sullivan GL, Tokaryk M, Russell JE, Davies GR, Johns KV, Hunter AP, Watson TM, Sarp S. Disposable FFP2 and Type IIR Medical-Grade Face Masks: An Exhaustive Analysis into the Leaching of Micro- and Nanoparticles and Chemical Pollutants Linked to the COVID-19 Pandemic. ACS ES&T WATER 2022; 2:527-538. [PMID: 35403122 PMCID: PMC8982497 DOI: 10.1021/acsestwater.1c00319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Revised: 03/13/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has increased the worldwide production and use of disposable plastic face masks (DPFMs). The release of micro- and nanopollutants into the environment is one of the impacts derived from regulated and unregulated disposal of DPFMs. This study focuses on the emission of pollutants from medical-grade DPFMs when submerged in deionized water, simulating regulated and unregulated disposal of these masks. Three brands of FFP2 and three brands of Type IIR medical masks, produced in various countries (UK, EU, and non-EU), were investigated. Field emission gun scanning electron microscopy (FEG-SEM) was used to obtain high-resolution images of the micro- and nanoparticles, and 0.02 μm pore size inorganic membranes were used to retain and subsequently analyze smaller particle size nanoparticles (>20 nm) released from the DPFMs. Particles and fibers in the micro- and nanoscale were found in all six DPFM brands. SEM with energy-dispersive spectroscopy analysis revealed the presence of particles containing different heavy metals like lead, mercury, and arsenic. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry analysis confirmed the leaching of trace heavy metals to water (antimony up to 2.41 μg/L and copper up to 4.68 μg/L). Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis identified polar organic species related to plastic additives and contaminants such as polyamide-66 monomers and oligomers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - G. L. Sullivan
- SPECIFIC,
College of Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, U.K.
| | - M. Tokaryk
- SPEC,
College of Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, U.K.
| | - J. E. Russell
- Advanced
Imaging of Materials Facility, Bay Campus, College of Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea SA1 8EN, U.K.
| | - G. R. Davies
- Technical
Development Center Analytical Laboratory, Tata Steel Europe, Harbourside
Business Park, Port Talbot SA13 1SB, U.K.
| | - K. V. Johns
- Technical
Development Center Analytical Laboratory, Tata Steel Europe, Harbourside
Business Park, Port Talbot SA13 1SB, U.K.
| | - A. P. Hunter
- National
Mass Spectrometry Facility, Swansea University
Medical School, Singleton
Park, Swansea SA2 8PP, U.K.
| | - T. M. Watson
- SPECIFIC,
College of Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, U.K.
| | - S. Sarp
- SPEC,
College of Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, U.K.
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14
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De-la-Torre GE, Dioses-Salinas DC, Pizarro-Ortega CI, Fernández Severini MD, Forero López AD, Mansilla R, Ayala F, Castillo LMJ, Castillo-Paico E, Torres DA, Mendoza-Castilla LM, Meza-Chuquizuta C, Vizcarra JK, Mejía M, De La Gala JJV, Ninaja EAS, Calisaya DLS, Flores-Miranda WE, Rosillo JLE, Espinoza-Morriberón D, Gonzales KN, Torres FG, Rimondino GN, Ben-Haddad M, Dobaradaran S, Aragaw TA, Santillán L. Binational survey of personal protective equipment (PPE) pollution driven by the COVID-19 pandemic in coastal environments: Abundance, distribution, and analytical characterization. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 426:128070. [PMID: 34922133 PMCID: PMC8672681 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.128070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2021] [Revised: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
In the present contribution, two nationwide surveys of personal protective equipment (PPE) pollution were conducted in Peru and Argentina aiming to provide valuable information regarding the abundance and distribution of PPE in coastal sites. Additionally, PPE items were recovered from the environment and analyzed by Fourier transformed infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with Energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), and X-ray diffraction (XRD), and compared to brand-new PPE in order to investigate the chemical and structural degradation of PPE in the environment. PPE density (PPE m-2) found in both countries were comparable to previous studies. FTIR analysis revealed multiple polymer types comprising common PPE, mainly polypropylene, polyamide, polyethylene terephthalate, and polyester. SEM micrographs showed clear weathering signs, such as cracks, cavities, and rough surfaces in face masks and gloves. EDX elemental mapping revealed the presence of elemental additives, such as Ca in gloves and face masks and AgNPs as an antimicrobial agent. Other metals found on the surface of PPE were Mo, P, Ti, and Zn. XRD patterns displayed a notorious decrease in the crystallinity of polypropylene face masks, which could alter its interaction with external contaminants and stability. The next steps in this line of research were discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Melisa D Fernández Severini
- Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía (IADO), CONICET/UNS, CCT-Bahía Blanca, Camino La Carrindanga, km 7.5, Edificio E1, Bahía Blanca, B8000FWB, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ana D Forero López
- Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía (IADO), CONICET/UNS, CCT-Bahía Blanca, Camino La Carrindanga, km 7.5, Edificio E1, Bahía Blanca, B8000FWB, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Romina Mansilla
- Centro Austral de Investigaciones Científicas (CADIC)-CONICET, Ushuaia, Argentina; Instituto de Ciencias Polares, Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (ICPA), Universidad Nacional de Tierra del Fuego (UNTDF), Ushuaia, Argentina
| | - Félix Ayala
- Centro para la Sostenibilidad Ambiental, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima 15074, Peru
| | - Luzby María Jimenez Castillo
- Laboratorio de oceanografía y acidificación costera, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional Pedro Ruiz Gallo, Calle Juan XXIII 391, 14013 Lambayeque, Peru
| | - Elizabeth Castillo-Paico
- Universidad Nacional José Faustino Sánchez Carrión, Pje. Mercedes Indacochea 609, Huacho 15136, Peru
| | - Daniel A Torres
- Centro para la Sostenibilidad Ambiental, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima 15074, Peru
| | | | - Carolina Meza-Chuquizuta
- Unidad de Investigación de Ecosistemas Marinos-Grupo Aves Marinas, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru
| | - Jhonson K Vizcarra
- Administración Técnica Forestal y de Fauna Silvestre Moquegua-Tacna, Servicio Nacional Forestal y de Fauna Silvestre, Tacna, Peru
| | - Melissa Mejía
- Laboratorio de Ecología Acuática, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Lima, Peru
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Dante Espinoza-Morriberón
- Facultad de Ingeniería Ambiental y de Recursos Naturales, Universidad Nacional del Callao (UNAC), Av. Juan Pablo II 306, Bellavista 07011, Provincia Constitucional del Callao, Peru; Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Tecnológica del Peru (UTP), Jirón Hernán Velarde 260, Cercado de Lima, 15046 Lima, Peru
| | - Karen N Gonzales
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Peru, Av. Universitaria 1801, 15088 Lima, Peru
| | - Fernando G Torres
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Peru, Av. Universitaria 1801, 15088 Lima, Peru
| | - Guido Noé Rimondino
- Instituto de Investigaciones en Fisicoquímica de Córdoba (INFIQC), Departamento de Fisicoquímica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Ciudad Universitaria, X5000HUA Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Mohamed Ben-Haddad
- Laboratory of Aquatic Systems: Marine and Continental Environments, Faculty of Sciences, Ibn Zohr University, Morocco
| | - Sina Dobaradaran
- Systems Environmental Health and Energy Research Center, The Persian Gulf Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran; Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Health and Nutrition, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran; Instrumental Analytical Chemistry and Centre for Water and Environmental Research (ZWU), Faculty of Chemistry, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstr. 5, Essen, Germany
| | - Tadele Assefa Aragaw
- Faculty of Chemical and Food Engineering, Bahir Dar Institute of Technology-Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
| | - Luis Santillán
- Universidad San Ignacio de Loyola, Av. La Fontana 501, Lima 12, Lima, Peru
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15
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Chen Y, Chen Q, Zhang Q, Zuo C, Shi H. An Overview of Chemical Additives on (Micro)Plastic Fibers: Occurrence, Release, and Health Risks. REVIEWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2022; 260:22. [PMCID: PMC9748405 DOI: 10.1007/s44169-022-00023-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 07/21/2023]
Abstract
Plastic fibers are ubiquitous in daily life with additives incorporated to improve their performance. Only a few restrictions exist for a paucity of common additives, while most of the additives used in textile industry have not been clearly regulated with threshold limits. The production of synthetic fibers, which can shed fibrous microplastics easily (< 5 mm) through mechanical abrasion and weathering, is increasing annually. These fibrous microplastics have become the main composition of microplastics in the environment. This review focuses on additives on synthetic fibers; we summarized the detection methods of additives, compared concentrations of different additive types (plasticizers, flame retardants, antioxidants, and surfactants) on (micro)plastic fibers, and analyzed their release and exposure pathways to environment and human beings. Our prediction shows that the amounts of predominant additives (phthalates, organophosphate esters, bisphenols, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, and nonylphenol ethoxylates) released from clothing microplastic fibers (MFs) are estimated to reach 35, 10, 553, 0.4, and 568 ton/year to water worldwide, respectively; and 119, 35, 1911, 1.4, and 1965 ton/year to air, respectively. Human exposure to MF additives via inhalation is estimated to be up to 4.5–6440 µg/person annually for the above five additives, and via ingestion 0.1–204 µg/person. Notably, the release of additives from face masks is nonnegligible that annual human exposure to phthalates, organophosphate esters, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances from masks via inhalation is approximately 491–1820 µg/person. This review helps understand the environmental fate and potential risks of released additives from (micro)plastic fibers, with a view to providing a basis for future research and policy designation of textile additives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuye Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200241 China
| | - Qiqing Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200241 China
- Yangtze Delta Estuarine Wetland Ecosystem Observation and Research Station, Ministry of Education & Shanghai Science and Technology Committee, Shanghai, China
| | - Qun Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200241 China
| | - Chencheng Zuo
- State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200241 China
| | - Huahong Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200241 China
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