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Bulka O, Picott K, Mahadevan R, Edwards EA. From mec cassette to rdhA: a key Dehalobacter genomic neighborhood in a chloroform and dichloromethane-transforming microbial consortium. Appl Environ Microbiol 2024; 90:e0073224. [PMID: 38819127 PMCID: PMC11218628 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00732-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Chloroform (CF) and dichloromethane (DCM) are groundwater contaminants of concern due to their high toxicity and inhibition of important biogeochemical processes such as methanogenesis. Anaerobic biotransformation of CF and DCM has been well documented but typically independently of one another. CF is the electron acceptor for certain organohalide-respiring bacteria that use reductive dehalogenases (RDases) to dechlorinate CF to DCM. In contrast, known DCM degraders use DCM as their electron donor, which is oxidized using a series of methyltransferases and associated proteins encoded by the mec cassette to facilitate the entry of DCM to the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway. The SC05 culture is an enrichment culture sold commercially for bioaugmentation, which transforms CF via DCM to CO2. This culture has the unique ability to dechlorinate CF to DCM using electron equivalents provided by the oxidation of DCM to CO2. Here, we use metagenomic and metaproteomic analyses to identify the functional genes involved in each of these transformations. Though 91 metagenome-assembled genomes were assembled, the genes for an RDase-named acdA-and a complete mec cassette were found to be encoded on a single contig belonging to Dehalobacter. AcdA and critical Mec proteins were also highly expressed by the culture. Heterologously expressed AcdA dechlorinated CF and other chloroalkanes but had 100-fold lower activity on DCM. Overall, the high expression of Mec proteins and the activity of AcdA suggest a Dehalobacter capable of dechlorination of CF to DCM and subsequent mineralization of DCM using the mec cassette. IMPORTANCE Chloroform (CF) and dichloromethane (DCM) are regulated groundwater contaminants. A cost-effective approach to remove these pollutants from contaminated groundwater is to employ microbes that transform CF and DCM as part of their metabolism, thus depleting the contamination as the microbes continue to grow. In this work, we investigate bioaugmentation culture SC05, a mixed microbial consortium that effectively and simultaneously degrades both CF and DCM coupled to the growth of Dehalobacter. We identified the functional genes responsible for the transformation of CF and DCM in SC05. These genetic biomarkers provide a means to monitor the remediation process in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia Bulka
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Katherine Picott
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Radhakrishnan Mahadevan
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Elizabeth A. Edwards
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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2
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Bulka O, Webb J, Dworatzek S, Mahadevan R, Edwards EA. A Multifunctional Dehalobacter? Tandem Chloroform and Dichloromethane Degradation in a Mixed Microbial Culture. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:19912-19920. [PMID: 37962431 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c06686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Chloroform (CF) and dichloromethane (DCM) contaminate groundwater sites around the world but can be cleaned up through bioremediation. Although several strains of Dehalobacter restrictus can reduce CF to DCM and multiple Peptococcaceae can ferment DCM, these processes cannot typically happen simultaneously due to CF sensitivity in the known DCM-degraders or electron donor competition. Here, we present a mixed microbial culture that can simultaneously metabolize CF and DCM and create an additional enrichment culture fed only DCM. Through genus-specific quantitative polymerase chain reaction, we find that Dehalobacter grows while either CF alone or DCM alone is converted, indicating its involvement in both metabolic steps. Additionally, the culture was maintained for over 1400 days without the addition of an exogenous electron donor, and through electron balance calculations, we show that DCM metabolism would produce sufficient reducing equivalents (likely hydrogen) for CF respiration. Together, these results suggest intraspecies electron transfer could occur to continually reduce CF in the culture. Minimizing the addition of electron donor reduces the cost of bioremediation, and "self-feeding" could prolong bioremediation activity long after donor addition ends. Overall, understanding this mechanism informs strategies for culture maintenance and scale-up and benefits contaminated sites where the culture is employed for remediation worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia Bulka
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E5, Canada
| | - Jennifer Webb
- SiREM, 130 Stone Road West, Guelph, Ontario N1G 3Z2, Canada
| | | | - Radhakrishnan Mahadevan
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E5, Canada
| | - Elizabeth A Edwards
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E5, Canada
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3
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Soder-Walz JM, Wasmund K, Deobald D, Vicent T, Adrian L, Marco-Urrea E. Respiratory protein interactions in Dehalobacter sp. strain 8M revealed through genomic and native proteomic analyses. Environ Microbiol 2023; 25:2604-2620. [PMID: 37452527 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.16464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
Dehalobacter (Firmicutes) encompass obligate organohalide-respiring bacteria used for bioremediation of groundwater contaminated with halogenated organics. Various aspects of their biochemistry remain unknown, including the identities and interactions of respiratory proteins. Here, we sequenced the genome of Dehalobacter sp. strain 8M and analysed its protein expression. Strain 8M encodes 22 reductive dehalogenase homologous (RdhA) proteins. RdhA D8M_v2_40029 (TmrA) was among the two most abundant proteins during growth with trichloromethane and 1,1,2-trichloroethane. To examine interactions of respiratory proteins, we used blue native gel electrophoresis together with dehalogenation activity tests and mass spectrometry. The highest activities were found in gel slices with the highest abundance of TmrA. Protein distributions across gel lanes provided biochemical evidence that the large and small subunits of the membrane-bound [NiFe] uptake hydrogenase (HupL and HupS) interacted strongly and that HupL/S interacted weakly with RdhA. Moreover, the interaction of RdhB and membrane-bound b-type cytochrome HupC was detected. RdhC proteins, often encoded in rdh operons but without described function, migrated in a protein complex not associated with HupL/S or RdhA. This study provides the first biochemical evidence of respiratory protein interactions in Dehalobacter, discusses implications for the respiratory architecture and advances the molecular comprehension of this unique respiratory chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesica M Soder-Walz
- Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Biològica i Ambiental, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Kenneth Wasmund
- Division of Microbial Ecology, Centre for Microbiology and Environmental Systems Science, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
| | - Darja Deobald
- Department Environmental Biotechnology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Teresa Vicent
- Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Biològica i Ambiental, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Lorenz Adrian
- Department Environmental Biotechnology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
- Chair of Geobiotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ernest Marco-Urrea
- Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Biològica i Ambiental, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Bellaterra, Spain
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Tucci M, Fernández-Verdejo D, Resitano M, Ciacia P, Guisasola A, Blánquez P, Marco-Urrea E, Cruz Viggi C, Matturro B, Crognale S, Aulenta F. Toluene-driven anaerobic biodegradation of chloroform in a continuous-flow bioelectrochemical reactor. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 338:139467. [PMID: 37437617 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 07/09/2023] [Indexed: 07/14/2023]
Abstract
Subsurface co-contamination by multiple pollutants can be challenging for the design of bioremediation strategies since it may require promoting different and often antagonistic degradation pathways. Here, we investigated the simultaneous degradation of toluene and chloroform (CF) in a continuous-flow anaerobic bioelectrochemical reactor. As a result, 47 μmol L-1 d-1 of toluene and 60 μmol L-1 d-1 of CF were concurrently removed, when the anode was polarized at +0.4 V vs. Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE). Analysis of the microbial community structure and key functional genes allowed to identify the involved degradation pathways. Interestingly, when acetate was supplied along with toluene, to simulate the impact of a readily biodegradable substrate on process performance, toluene degradation was adversely affected, likely due to competitive inhibition effects. Overall, this study proved the efficacy of the developed bioelectrochemical system in simultaneously treating multiple groundwater contaminants, paving the way for the application in real-world scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Tucci
- Water Research Institute (IRSA), National Research Council (CNR), Via Salaria km 29.300, 00015, Monterotondo, RM, Italy
| | - David Fernández-Verdejo
- Biorem UAB, Department of Chemical, Biological and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marco Resitano
- Water Research Institute (IRSA), National Research Council (CNR), Via Salaria km 29.300, 00015, Monterotondo, RM, Italy
| | - Pamela Ciacia
- Water Research Institute (IRSA), National Research Council (CNR), Via Salaria km 29.300, 00015, Monterotondo, RM, Italy
| | - Albert Guisasola
- GENOCOV, Department of Chemical, Biological and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Paqui Blánquez
- Biorem UAB, Department of Chemical, Biological and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ernest Marco-Urrea
- Biorem UAB, Department of Chemical, Biological and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carolina Cruz Viggi
- Water Research Institute (IRSA), National Research Council (CNR), Via Salaria km 29.300, 00015, Monterotondo, RM, Italy
| | - Bruna Matturro
- Water Research Institute (IRSA), National Research Council (CNR), Via Salaria km 29.300, 00015, Monterotondo, RM, Italy; National Biodiversity Future Center (NBFC), Palermo, Italy
| | - Simona Crognale
- Water Research Institute (IRSA), National Research Council (CNR), Via Salaria km 29.300, 00015, Monterotondo, RM, Italy; National Biodiversity Future Center (NBFC), Palermo, Italy
| | - Federico Aulenta
- Water Research Institute (IRSA), National Research Council (CNR), Via Salaria km 29.300, 00015, Monterotondo, RM, Italy; National Biodiversity Future Center (NBFC), Palermo, Italy.
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Stari L, Tusher TR, Inoue C, Chien MF. A microbial consortium led by a novel Pseudomonas species enables degradation of carbon tetrachloride under aerobic conditions. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 319:137988. [PMID: 36724852 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.137988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Carbon tetrachloride (CT) is a recalcitrant and high priority pollutant known for its toxicity, environmental prevalence, and inhibitory activities. Although much is known about anaerobic CT biodegradation, microbial degradation of CT under aerobic conditions has not yet been reported. This study reports for the first time the enrichment of a stable aerobic CT-degrading bacterial consortium, from a CT-contaminated groundwater sample, capable of co-metabolically degrading 30 μM of CT within a week. A Pseudomonas strain (designated as Stari2) that is the predominant bacterium in this consortium was isolated, and further characterization showed that this bacterium can tolerate and co-metabolically degrade up to 5 mM of CT under aerobic conditions in the presence of different carbon/energy sources. The CT biodegradation profiles of strain Stari2 and the consortium were found to be identical, while no significant positive correlation between strain Stari2 and other bacteria was observed in the consortium during the period of higher CT biodegradation. These results confirmed that the isolated Pseudomonas strain Stari2 is the key player in the consortium catalyzing the biodegradation of CT. No chloroform (CF) or other chlorinated compound was detected during the cometabolism of CT. The whole genome sequencing of strain Stari2 showed that it is a novel Pseudomonas species. The findings demonstrated that biodegradation of CT under aerobic conditions is feasible, and the isolated CT-degrader Pseudomonas sp. strain Stari2 has a great potential for in-situ bioremediation of CT-contaminated environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo Stari
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku University, Aoba 6-6-20, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8579, Japan; Graduate School of Life Science, Tohoku University, Katahira 2-1-1, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8577, Japan
| | - Tanmoy Roy Tusher
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku University, Aoba 6-6-20, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8579, Japan; Department of Biological Sciences, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI, 53233, USA; Department of Environmental Science and Resource Management, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University, Santosh, Tangail, 1902, Bangladesh
| | - Chihiro Inoue
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku University, Aoba 6-6-20, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8579, Japan
| | - Mei-Fang Chien
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku University, Aoba 6-6-20, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8579, Japan.
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Zhu M, Zhang L, Xu J, He Y. Improved understanding on biochar effect in electron supplied anaerobic soil as evidenced by dechlorination and methanogenesis processes. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 857:159346. [PMID: 36228795 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2022] [Revised: 09/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Research interest in biochar as an environmental remediation material has rapidly increased over the past few years. However, the effect of biochar on typical environmental processes in anaerobic soil environment has been insufficiently discussed. By regulating the electron donors with sodium acetate or pyruvate, the effects and underpinning chemical-microbiological coupling mechanisms of biochar under anaerobic conditions were disclosed. Unlike the electron limited condition, the addition of electron donors alleviated the competition for electrons among various reduction processes in the soil. The effect of biochar in regulating the electron transfer processes was lessened. But more than doubled methane emissions were resulted by the exogenous substances, especially with the synergic effect of biochar. Biochar addition increased soil environmental heterogeneity. It might indirectly affect the reductive transformation of γ-HCH via increasing the bioavailability of pollutants through adsorption and promoting the metabolism of some rare microorganisms. Anaerolineaceae, Peptococcaceae and Methanosarcina had coherent phylogenetic patterns and were likely to be the enablers for the reductive dechlorination process in flooded soil. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATION: Previous studies have widely reported the performance characteristics of biochar, but its effects under anaerobic environments are not systematically understood. By regulating the electron donors, the competition for electrons among various reduction processes in the soil might be alleviated, resulting in a lessened effect of biochar in regulating the electron transfer processes. The findings presented in this study highlight the role of biochar to the dynamic changes of reduction processes under anaerobic environments. The relevant soil conditions such as the electron donors and the functional microbial groups should be adequately considered for maximizing the all-around beneficial efficiency of biochar amendments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Zhu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou 310012, China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Resources and Environment, Institute of Soil and Water Resources and Environmental Science, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Lujun Zhang
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Jianming Xu
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Resources and Environment, Institute of Soil and Water Resources and Environmental Science, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yan He
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Resources and Environment, Institute of Soil and Water Resources and Environmental Science, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Key Laboratory of Environment Remediation and Ecological Health, Ministry of Education, Hangzhou 310058, China.
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7
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Fernández-Verdejo D, Cortés P, Guisasola A, Blánquez P, Marco-Urrea E. Bioelectrochemically-assisted degradation of chloroform by a co-culture of Dehalobacter and Dehalobacterium. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ECOTECHNOLOGY 2022; 12:100199. [PMID: 36157346 PMCID: PMC9500365 DOI: 10.1016/j.ese.2022.100199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Revised: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Using bioelectrochemical systems (BESs) to provide electrochemically generated hydrogen is a promising technology to provide electron donors for reductive dechlorination by organohalide-respiring bacteria. In this study, we inoculated two syntrophic dechlorinating cultures containing Dehalobacter and Dehalobacterium to sequentially transform chloroform (CF) to acetate in a BES using a graphite fiber brush as the electrode. In this co-culture, Dehalobacter transformed CF to stoichiometric amounts of dichloromethane (DCM) via organohalide respiration, whereas the Dehalobacterium-containing culture converted DCM to acetate via fermentation. BES were initially inoculated with Dehalobacter, and sequential cathodic potentials of -0.6, -0.7, and -0.8 V were poised after consuming three CF doses (500 μM) per each potential during a time-span of 83 days. At the end of this period, the accumulated DCM was degraded in the following seven days after the inoculation of Dehalobacterium. At this point, four consecutive amendments of CF at increasing concentrations of 200, 400, 600, and 800 μM were sequentially transformed by the combined degradation activity of Dehalobacter and Dehalobacterium. The Dehalobacter 16S rRNA gene copies increased four orders of magnitude during the whole period. The coulombic efficiencies associated with the degradation of CF reached values > 60% at a cathodic potential of -0.8 V when the degradation rate of CF achieved the highest values. This study shows the advantages of combining syntrophic bacteria to fully detoxify chlorinated compounds in BESs and further expands the use of this technology for treating water bodies impacted with pollutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Fernández-Verdejo
- Biorem UAB, Department of Chemical, Biological and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pilar Cortés
- Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Facultat de BioCiències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Albert Guisasola
- GENOCOV, Department of Chemical, Biological and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Paqui Blánquez
- Biorem UAB, Department of Chemical, Biological and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ernest Marco-Urrea
- Biorem UAB, Department of Chemical, Biological and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
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Phillips E, Bulka O, Picott K, Kümmel S, Edwards E, Nijenhuis I, Gehre M, Dworatzek S, Webb J, Lollar BS. Investigation of Active Site Amino Acid Influence on Carbon and Chlorine Isotope Fractionation during Reductive Dechlorination. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2022; 98:6608266. [PMID: 35700008 DOI: 10.1093/femsec/fiac072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 05/23/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Reductive dehalogenases (RDases) are corrinoid-dependent enzymes that reductively dehalogenate organohalides in respiratory processes. By comparing isotope effects in biotically-catalyzed reactions to reference experiments with abiotic corrinoid-catalysts, compound-specific isotope analysis (CSIA) has been shown to yield valuable insights into enzyme mechanisms and kinetics, including RDases. Here, we report isotopic fractionation (ε) during biotransformation of chloroform (CF) for carbon (εC = -1.52 ± 0.34‰) and chlorine (εCl = -1.84 ± 0.19‰), corresponding to a ΛC/Cl value of 1.13 ± 0.35. These results are highly suppressed compared to isotope effects observed both during CF biotransformation by another organism with a highly similar RDase (> 95% sequence identity) at the amino acid level, and to those observed during abiotic dehalogenation of CF. Amino acid differences occur at four locations within the two different RDases' active sites, and this study examines whether these differences potentially affect the observed εC, εCl, and ΛC/Cl. Structural protein models approximating the locations of the residues elucidate possible controls on reaction mechanisms and/or substrate binding efficiency. These four locations are not conserved among other chloroalkane reducing RDases with high amino acid similarity (> 90%), suggesting that these locations may be important in determining isotope fractionation within this homologous group of RDases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Phillips
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Toronto, 22 Ursula Franklin Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3B1, Canada
| | - Olivia Bulka
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E5, Canada
| | - Katherine Picott
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E5, Canada
| | - Steffen Kümmel
- Department of Isotope Biogeochemistry, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Permoserstrasse 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Elizabeth Edwards
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E5, Canada
| | - Ivonne Nijenhuis
- Department of Isotope Biogeochemistry, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Permoserstrasse 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Matthias Gehre
- Department of Isotope Biogeochemistry, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Permoserstrasse 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | | | | | - Barbara Sherwood Lollar
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Toronto, 22 Ursula Franklin Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3B1, Canada
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