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Zahoor A, Kun R, Mao G, Farkas F, Sápi A, Kónya Z. Urgent needs for second life using and recycling design of wasted electric vehicles (EVs) lithium-ion battery: a scientometric analysis. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:43152-43173. [PMID: 38896217 PMCID: PMC11222215 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-33979-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Currently, lithium-ion batteries are increasingly widely used and generate waste due to the rapid development of the EV industry. Meanwhile, how to reuse "second life" and recycle "extracting of valuable metals" of these wasted EVBs has been a hot research topic. The 4810 relevant articles from SCI and SSCI Scopus databases were obtained. Scientometric analysis about second life using and recycling methodologies of wasted EVBs was conducted by VOSviewer, Pajek, and Netdraw. According to analytical results, the research of second life using and recycling mythologies has been growing and the expected achievement will continue to increase. China, Germany, the USA, Italy, and the UK are the most active countries in this field. Tsinghua University in China, "Fraunhofer ISI, Karlsruhe" in Germany, and "Polytechnic di Torino" in Italy are the most productive single and collaborative institutions. The journals SAE technical papers and World Electric Vehicle Journal have the highest publication and citations than other journals. Chinese author "Li Y" has the highest number of 36 publications, and his papers were cited 589 times by other authors. By analyzing the co-occurrence and keywords, energy analysis, second life (stationary using, small industry), and treatment methods, (hydrometallurgy and pyrometallurgical, electrochemical, bio-metallurgical) were the hot research topics. The S-curve from the article indicates hydrometallurgical and bio-metallurgical methods are attached with great potential in the near future. Further, different treatment methodologies are observed especially advanced techniques in hydrometallurgical, and spent medium bioleaching techniques in bio-metallurgical are good, economically cheap, has low CO2 emission, environmentally friendly, and has high recovery rate. Finally, this research provides information on second life use and top recycling methodology opportunities for future research direction for researchers and decision-makers who are interested in this research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aqib Zahoor
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, China
- National Industry-Education Platform of Energy Storage, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Róbert Kun
- Solid-State Energy Storage Research Group, Institute of Materials and Environmental Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Budapest, Magyar Tudósok Krt. 2, 1117, Budapest, Hungary
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Process Engineering, Faculty of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem Rkp. 3, 1111, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Guozhu Mao
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, China
- National Industry-Education Platform of Energy Storage, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Ferenc Farkas
- Solid-State Energy Storage Research Group, Institute of Materials and Environmental Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Budapest, Magyar Tudósok Krt. 2, 1117, Budapest, Hungary
| | - András Sápi
- Interdisciplinary Excellence Centre, Department of Applied and Environmental Chemistry, University of Szeged, Rerrich Béla Tér 1, 6720, Szeged, Hungary.
| | - Zoltán Kónya
- Interdisciplinary Excellence Centre, Department of Applied and Environmental Chemistry, University of Szeged, Rerrich Béla Tér 1, 6720, Szeged, Hungary
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2
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Kocsis D, T. Kiss J, Arpad IW. Evaluating battery electric vehicle usage in the EU: A comparative study based on member state energy mixes. Heliyon 2024; 10:e30655. [PMID: 38742055 PMCID: PMC11089349 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e30655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Revised: 04/29/2024] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024] Open
Abstract
The transport sector is undergoing a major transformation, as battery electric vehicles (BEV) are gaining ground. Therefore, assessing the sustainability aspects of their use is crucial to obtaining a clear picture of the sector. This article aims to meet this requirement by using European Union (EU) data for the period 2011 to 2021 and focuses not only on EU-27 aggregates but also on each member state separately. For the evaluation, a well-to-wheel (WTW) method was used to calculate two parameters: energy-specific CO2 emissions (ε) and total efficiency of energy conversions, transmission, and battery (ηtotal). For these values, the annual electricity mixes of the countries were tracked in 5 + 1 categories (combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT), thermal power plant, biofuels, nuclear power plant (NPP), renewables, and imports). The calculated results were illustrated by sustainability matrices describing the former and current positions of the countries. The EU-27 aggregate achieved a 0.04 increase (from 0.37 to 0.41) in total efficiency and a 29 gCO2/MJmotion decrease (from 113 to 84 gCO2/MJmotion) during the period. This ε value for 2021 was around half the world average. However, very significant differences were identified between member states, which are also assessed in the article with special emphases on the five most populated EU countries (Germany, France, Italy, Spain, and Poland).
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Affiliation(s)
- Denes Kocsis
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Debrecen, 4032, Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Judit T. Kiss
- Department of Engineering Management and Enterprise, Faculty of Engineering, University of Debrecen, 4032, Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Istvan W. Arpad
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Debrecen, 4032, Debrecen, Hungary
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3
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Ginting MG, Reguyal F, Cecilia VM, Wang K, Sarmah AK. Electrification of public buses in Jakarta, Indonesia: A life cycle study. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 914:169875. [PMID: 38185147 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.169875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Revised: 12/09/2023] [Accepted: 01/01/2024] [Indexed: 01/09/2024]
Abstract
Indonesia plans to mitigate the environmental emissions, particularly the carbon emissions, from the transport by replacing conventional buses with battery electric buses (BEBs). However, there are limited studies on the potential environmental benefits of BEBs and mostly focused on carbon emissions. In this study, the environmental impacts of adopting BEBs in Jakarta's public transportation system were examined using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to better understand its potential environmental impacts. Using LCA, the environmental impacts of BEBs were also compared with conventional buses across their life cycles, which included raw materials extraction until the end of life stages. The results showed diesel buses have generally lower environmental impacts than BEBs due to the high share of fossil fuels in the electricity generation in Indonesia. Scenario analysis showed that extending the life cycle, using different battery disposal methods, and using battery reuse could lead to higher environmental benefits in using BEBs. Among the scenarios considered in the study, prolonging the lifespan of the bus to 32 years, using electricity mix with a higher share of renewable energy and reusing the lithium-ion batteries, BEBs would have lesser environmental impact per kilometre. In particular, the particulate matter formation (PM2.5) dropped 21 %, while the overall life cycle of BEB using the highest renewable scenario showed an average of 25 % improvement compared to the baseline scenario regarding environmental impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moses Gregory Ginting
- Department of Engineering Science, Faculty of Engineering, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Febelyn Reguyal
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand.
| | - Valentina Maria Cecilia
- Department of Engineering Science, Faculty of Engineering, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
| | - Kun Wang
- Qingdao Solid Waste Pollution Control and Resource Engineering Research Centre, School of Environment and Municipal Engineering, Qingdao University of Technology, Qingdao 266033, China
| | - Ajit K Sarmah
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand; School of Agriculture and Environment, The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia
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4
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Juang J, Williams WG, Ramshankar AT, Schmidt J, Xuan K, Bozeman JF. A multi-scale lifecycle and technoeconomic framework for higher education fleet electrification. Sci Rep 2024; 14:4938. [PMID: 38418451 PMCID: PMC10901860 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-54752-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Transportation accounts for one-quarter of all energy related greenhouse gas emissions. As it pertains to transport electrification, higher education institutions-such as universities-can model solutions that affect broader society. Despite this, higher education's role in fleet electrification adoption has been understudied. We, therefore, modeled an archetypical higher education institution to analyze the carbon and economic payback periods of three electrification scenarios (Business-as-Usual, Targeted Electrification, and Full Electrification) using a cradle-to-grave lifecycle and technoeconomic approach. Given the archetypical higher education institution fleet of 368 vehicles, results show an economic ratio plateau point of about 8 years at 20 fuel-based cars replaced by electric vehicles and a carbon payback period peak of roughly 10 months at 50 fuel-based cars replaced. We then performed a multi-scalar analysis by leveraging implementation theory. We find that higher education institutions that adhere to the tenets of implementation theory are poised to be pro-environmental change agents in many regions and countries. The methods and findings herein can be adapted to other institutions, regardless of fleet size, and can bolster relevant decision-making outcomes now.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Juang
- College of Business, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Wyatt Green Williams
- College of Business, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
- Georgia Institute of Technology, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Arjun T Ramshankar
- Georgia Institute of Technology, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - John Schmidt
- Computer Science, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Kendrick Xuan
- Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Joe F Bozeman
- Georgia Institute of Technology, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
- School of Public Policy, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
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5
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Mączka M, Guzik M, Mosiałek M, Wojnarowska M, Pasierb P, Nitkiewicz T. Life cycle assessment of experimental Al-ion batteries for energy storage applications. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 912:169258. [PMID: 38101635 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.169258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
In this work, the analysis of environmental performance and its coherence with circular economy priorities of different variants of Al-ion battery construction was performed. Al-ion-based batteries can be considered as one of the future alternatives for currently used Li-ion-based cells when the shortage of lithium or cobalt becomes a challenge. All tested batteries were constructed with Al anodes, polypropylene foil separator, polyvinylidene fluoride + N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone (PVDF+NMP) binder, Al collector and laminated Al foil pouch cell. WO3, Norit and carbon from potato starch (CPS) were used as a cathode material. Saturated solutions of AlCl3 dissolved in diethylene glycol dimethyl ether (DEG) and deep eutectic solvents (DES) originating from bacterial polymer polyhydroxyalkanoate were used as electrolytes. The ReCiPe impact assessment method was used in this analysis. The indicator in this study was ReCiPe Endpoint (H) V1.07 referring to Europe. SimaPro 9.4 software with Ecoinvent 3.8 inventory database were used for all calculations. The analysis included experimental production and assembly of batteries and their end-of-life processing. Based on the performed analysis it was found that the overall weighted impact of each single construction variant of an Al-ion battery is dominated by the use of electricity, no matter which variant is considered since it is related to the electricity mix in Poland and its high dependence on fossil fuels. Overall environmental impact is the smallest for CPS DEG battery, while Norit DEG and CPS DEG variants have slightly higher impacts. The share of end-of-life processing in overall environmental impacts of all analysed variants was found low compared to the Li-ion batteries. This observation indicates the Al-ion batteries as a promising direction of alternative electrochemical devices for energy storage systems while end-of-life processing and circular solution are concerned.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magda Mączka
- AGH University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Materials Science and Ceramics, al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Kraków, Poland
| | - Maciej Guzik
- Jerzy Haber Institute of Catalysis and Surface Chemistry Polish Academy of Sciences, Niezapominajek 8, 30-239 Krakow, Poland.
| | - Michał Mosiałek
- Jerzy Haber Institute of Catalysis and Surface Chemistry Polish Academy of Sciences, Niezapominajek 8, 30-239 Krakow, Poland
| | - Magdalena Wojnarowska
- Cracow University of Economics, Institute of Quality Sciences and Product Management, al. Rakowicka 27, 31-510 Kraków, Poland
| | - Paweł Pasierb
- AGH University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Materials Science and Ceramics, al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Kraków, Poland
| | - Tomasz Nitkiewicz
- Częstochowa University of Technology, Faculty of Management, al. Armii Krajowej 19B, 42-201 Częstochowa, Poland.
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6
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Siwiec D, Pacana A. Predicting Design Solutions with Scenarios Considering the Quality of Materials and Products Based on a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 17:951. [PMID: 38399204 PMCID: PMC10890010 DOI: 10.3390/ma17040951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2024] [Revised: 02/06/2024] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
The advancement of quality and environmentally sustainable materials and products made from them has improved significantly over the last few years. However, a research gap is the lack of a developed model that allows for the simultaneous analysis of quality and environmental criteria in the life-cycle assessment (LCA) for the selection of materials in newly designed products. Therefore, the objective of the research was to develop a model that supports the prediction of the environmental impact and expected quality of materials and products made from them according to the design solution scenarios considering their LCA. The model implements the GRA method and environmental impact analysis according to the LCA based on ISO 14040. The model test was carried out for light passenger vehicles of BEV with a lithium-ion battery (LiFePO4) and for ICEV. The results indicated a relatively comparable level of quality, but in the case of the environmental impact throughout the life-cycle, the predominant amount of CO2 emissions in the use phase for combustion vehicles. The originality of the developed model to create scenarios of design solutions is created according to which the optimal direction of their development in terms of quality and environment throughout LCA can be predicted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominika Siwiec
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics, Rzeszow University of Technology, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland;
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7
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Das PK, Bhat MY, Sajith S. Life cycle assessment of electric vehicles: a systematic review of literature. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:73-89. [PMID: 38038907 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-30999-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
This study addresses the pressing need to evaluate the life cycle assessment (LCA) of electric vehicles (EVs) in comparison to traditional vehicles, amid growing environmental concerns and the quest for sustainable transportation alternatives. Through a systematic four-stage literature review, it strives to provide essential insights into the environmental impact, energy consumption, and resource utilization associated with EVs, thereby informing well-informed decisions in the transition to more sustainable transportation systems. The study's findings underscore a compelling environmental advantage of EVs. They emit a staggering 97% less CO2 equivalent emissions when compared to petrol vehicles, and a significant 70% less compared to their diesel counterparts, rendering them a crucial instrument in the battle against climate change. These environmental benefits are intricately linked to the adoption of clean energy sources and advanced battery technology. Furthermore, the study highlights the potential for additional emissions reduction through the extension of EV lifespans achieved by recycling and advanced battery technologies, with Li-ion batteries enjoying a second life as secondary storage systems. However, challenges remain, most notably the scarcity of rare earth materials essential for EV technology. The study's policy recommendations advocate for a swift shift towards clean energy sources in both EV production and usage, substantial investments in advanced battery technology, and robust support for recycling initiatives. Addressing the rare earth material shortage is paramount to the sustained growth and viability of EVs, facilitating a greener and more sustainable future in the realm of transportation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pabitra Kumar Das
- Department of Power Management, School of Business, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, 248007, India
| | - Mohammad Younus Bhat
- Department of Economics and International Business, School of Business, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, 248007, India.
| | - Shambhu Sajith
- Department of Power Management, School of Business, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, 248007, India
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8
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Koroma MS, Costa D, Puricelli S, Messagie M. Life Cycle Assessment of a novel functionally integrated e-axle compared with powertrains for electric and conventional passenger cars. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 904:166860. [PMID: 37673260 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2023] [Revised: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023]
Abstract
Road transport significantly contributes to climate change and air pollution. Efforts to reduce transport sector emissions include deploying battery electric vehicles and designing their powertrains for improved performance. The European H2020 funded Functionally Integrated E-axle Ready for Mass Market Third GENeration Electric Vehicles (FITGEN) developed a novel functionally integrated e-axle (the FITGEN e-axle) for electric vehicles. This paper presents the environmental performance of the FITGEN e-axle. Using the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology, the study compares the FITGEN e-axle to the 2018 State-of-the-Art (SotA) e-drive, besides diesel and petrol-fuelled powertrains. The FITGEN powertrain reduces climate impacts by 10 % and energy consumption by 17 %, compared with the 2018 SotA e-drive due to the efficiency improvements and components integration. It also outperforms the 2018 SotA e-drive in several other impact categories, such as human toxicity (4-10 %), land use (19 %), and mineral depletion (8 %). However, the FITGEN powertrain only outperforms diesel and petrol powertrains in climate change and fossil resource scarcity impact categories. These findings imply that more efforts are required to improve the environmental profile of electric powertrains. Metal mining and production, especially for copper and aluminium, are critical for toxicity impacts. The sensitivity analysis demonstrates the robustness of the results, with no significant shift in their ranking order. The following aspects should be considered to improve the performance of electric powertrains from a life cycle perspective: improvement of components efficiency, reduced use of electronics and component integration, and use of low-carbon energy mix from their metal mining sites to production and use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Samsu Koroma
- Electric Vehicle and Energy Research Group (EVERGI), Mobility, Logistics and Automotive Technology Research Centre (MOBI), Department of Electrical Engineering and Energy Technology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Ixelles, Belgium.
| | - Daniele Costa
- Electric Vehicle and Energy Research Group (EVERGI), Mobility, Logistics and Automotive Technology Research Centre (MOBI), Department of Electrical Engineering and Energy Technology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Ixelles, Belgium; VITO - EnergyVille, Unit Smart Energy and Built Environment (SEB), Thor Park 8310, 3600 Genk, Belgium
| | - Stefano Puricelli
- AWARE - Assessment on WAste and REsources, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Maarten Messagie
- Electric Vehicle and Energy Research Group (EVERGI), Mobility, Logistics and Automotive Technology Research Centre (MOBI), Department of Electrical Engineering and Energy Technology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Ixelles, Belgium
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9
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Wu W, Cong N, Zhang X, Yue Q, Zhang M. Life cycle assessment and carbon reduction potential prediction of electric vehicles batteries. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 903:166620. [PMID: 37643704 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Electric vehicles (EVs) battery is a crucial component of energy storage components for electric vehicles. However, the environmental impact of EVs battery is still not clear. Therefore, this paper establishes a cradle-to-cradle life cycle assessment (LCA) frame and clarifies the environmental impacts on the entire lifespan of EVs battery in China. Specifically, the environmental impact of battery production, battery use, and recycling & disposal stages are analyzed and measured. In addition, the carbon reduction potential of recycling and secondary use under a future electricity mix is estimated. Results show that: (1) The production stage of EVs battery with the carbon emission of 105 kgCO2-eq/kWh, which has the most significant impact on the environment. (2) In the recycling process, cascade utilization can reduce 1.536 kgCO2-eq/kWh carbon emission. In terms of recycling methods, hydrometallurgy can reduce the most carbon emission (13.3 kgCO2-eq/kWh), followed by the combined hydro-pyrometallurgical process (8.11 kgCO2-eq/kWh) and pyrometallurgy (0.57 kgCO2-eq/kWh). (3) Under the estimated electricity mix in 2030, 2040, and 2050, the carbon emission in battery production can be approximately reduced by 31.9 %, 45 %, and 48.1 %, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenqi Wu
- School of Economics and Management, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China; Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, 117585 Singapore, Singapore.
| | - Nan Cong
- School of Economics and Management, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
| | - Xueli Zhang
- School of Economics and Management, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
| | - Qian Yue
- School of Economics and Management, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
| | - Ming Zhang
- School of Economics and Management, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China.
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Dong Q, Liang S, Li J, Kim HC, Shen W, Wallington TJ. Cost, energy, and carbon footprint benefits of second-life electric vehicle battery use. iScience 2023; 26:107195. [PMID: 37456844 PMCID: PMC10339184 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.107195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The manuscript reviews the research on economic and environmental benefits of second-life electric vehicle batteries (EVBs) use for energy storage in households, utilities, and EV charging stations. Economic benefits depend heavily on electricity costs, battery costs, and battery performance; carbon benefits depend largely on the electricity mix charging the batteries. Environmental performance is greatest when used to store renewable energy such as wind and solar power. Inconsistent system boundaries make it challenging to compare the life cycle carbon footprint across different studies. The future growth of second-life EVB utilization faces several challenges, including the chemical and electrical properties and states of health of retired EVBs, the rapidly decreasing costs of new batteries, and different operational requirements. Measures to mitigate these challenges include the development of efficient diagnostic technologies, comprehensive test standards, and battery designs suitable for remanufacturing. Further research is needed based on real-world operational data and harmonized approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingyin Dong
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Shuang Liang
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jinhui Li
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Hyung Chul Kim
- Research & Innovation Center, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, MI 48121, USA
| | - Wei Shen
- Research & Advanced Engineering, Ford Motor Company, Beijing 100020, China
| | - Timothy J. Wallington
- Center for Sustainable Systems, School for Environment and Sustainability, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
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Ren Y, Sun X, Wolfram P, Zhao S, Tang X, Kang Y, Zhao D, Zheng X. Hidden delays of climate mitigation benefits in the race for electric vehicle deployment. Nat Commun 2023; 14:3164. [PMID: 37258514 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-38182-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Although battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are climate-friendly alternatives to internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), an important but often ignored fact is that the climate mitigation benefits of BEVs are usually delayed. The manufacture of BEVs is more carbon-intensive than that of ICEVs, leaving a greenhouse gas (GHG) debt to be paid back in the future use phase. Here we analyze millions of vehicle data from the Chinese market and show that the GHG break-even time (GBET) of China's BEVs ranges from zero (i.e., the production year) to over 11 years, with an average of 4.5 years. 8% of China's BEVs produced and sold between 2016 and 2018 cannot pay back their GHG debt within the eight-year battery warranty. We suggest enhancing the share of BEVs reaching the GBET by promoting the effective substitution of BEVs for ICEVs instead of the single-minded pursuit of speeding up the BEV deployment race.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Ren
- School of Economics and Management, China University of Petroleum-Beijing, Beijing, 102249, China
| | - Xin Sun
- China Automotive Technology and Research Center Co., Ltd, No. 68, East Xianfeng Road, Dongli District, Tianjin, 300300, China
- Automotive Data of China (Tianjin) Co., Ltd., No. 3 Wanhui Road, Zhongbei Town, Xiqing District, Tianjin, 300393, China
- Automotive Data of China Co., Ltd., Boxing 6th Road, Beijing Economic Development Zone, Beijing, 100176, China
| | - Paul Wolfram
- Joint Global Change Research Institute, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory and University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
| | - Shaoqiong Zhao
- School of Economics and Management, China University of Petroleum-Beijing, Beijing, 102249, China
| | - Xu Tang
- School of Economics and Management, China University of Petroleum-Beijing, Beijing, 102249, China
| | - Yifei Kang
- Beijing Yiwei New Energy Vehicles Big Data Application &Technology Research Center, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Dongchang Zhao
- China Automotive Technology and Research Center Co., Ltd, No. 68, East Xianfeng Road, Dongli District, Tianjin, 300300, China
- Automotive Data of China (Tianjin) Co., Ltd., No. 3 Wanhui Road, Zhongbei Town, Xiqing District, Tianjin, 300393, China
- Automotive Data of China Co., Ltd., Boxing 6th Road, Beijing Economic Development Zone, Beijing, 100176, China
| | - Xinzhu Zheng
- School of Economics and Management, China University of Petroleum-Beijing, Beijing, 102249, China.
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Zhang H, Xue B, Li S, Yu Y, Li X, Chang Z, Wu H, Hu Y, Huang K, Liu L, Chen L, Su Y. Life cycle environmental impact assessment for battery-powered electric vehicles at the global and regional levels. Sci Rep 2023; 13:7952. [PMID: 37193809 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-35150-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/13/2023] [Indexed: 05/18/2023] Open
Abstract
As an important part of electric vehicles, lithium-ion battery packs will have a certain environmental impact in the use stage. To analyze the comprehensive environmental impact, 11 lithium-ion battery packs composed of different materials were selected as the research object. By introducing the life cycle assessment method and entropy weight method to quantify environmental load, a multilevel index evaluation system was established based on environmental battery characteristics. The results show that the Li-S battery is the cleanest battery in the use stage. In addition, in terms of power structure, when battery packs are used in China, the carbon footprint, ecological footprint, acidification potential, eutrophication potential, human toxicity cancer and human toxicity noncancer are much higher than those in the other four regions. Although the current power structure in China is not conducive to the sustainable development of electric vehicles, the optimization of the power structure is expected to make electric vehicles achieve clean driving in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongliang Zhang
- School of Management and Economics, Center for Energy and Environmental Policy Research, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Bingya Xue
- Department of Energy and Environmental Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Songnian Li
- Department of Energy and Environmental Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Yajuan Yu
- Department of Energy and Environmental Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China.
- Beijing Institute of Technology Chongqing Innovation Center, Chongqing, 401120, China.
| | - Xi Li
- Beijing Automotive Technology Center, Beijing, 100163, China
| | - Zeyu Chang
- Department of Energy and Environmental Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Haohui Wu
- Department of Energy and Environmental Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Yuchen Hu
- School of Management and Economics, Center for Energy and Environmental Policy Research, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Kai Huang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Lei Liu
- Department of Civil and Resource Engineering, Dalhousie University, Halifax, B3H4R2, Canada
| | - Lai Chen
- Department of Energy and Environmental Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
- Beijing Institute of Technology Chongqing Innovation Center, Chongqing, 401120, China
| | - Yuefeng Su
- Department of Energy and Environmental Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
- Beijing Institute of Technology Chongqing Innovation Center, Chongqing, 401120, China
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Cofré P, Viton MDL, Ushak S, Grágeda M. Life Cycle Analysis of a Green Solvothermal Synthesis of LFP Nanoplates for Enhanced LIBs in Chile. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 13:nano13091486. [PMID: 37177031 PMCID: PMC10180422 DOI: 10.3390/nano13091486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Revised: 04/15/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Despite the structural and electrochemical advantages of LiFePO4 (LFP) as a cathode material, the solid-state reaction commonly used as a method to produce it at the industrial level has known disadvantages associated with high energy and fossil fuel consumption. On the other hand, solution-based synthesis methods present a more efficient way to produce LFP and have advantages such as controlled crystal growth, homogeneous morphology, and better control of pollutant emissions because the reaction occurs within a closed system. From an environmental point of view, different impacts associated with each synthesis method have not been studied extensively. The use of less polluting precursors during synthesis, as well as efficient use of energy and water, can provide new insights into the advantages of each cathode material for more environmentally friendly batteries. In this work, a solvothermal method is compared to a solid-state synthesis method commonly used to elaborate LFPs at the commercial level in order to evaluate differences in the environmental impacts of both processes. The solvothermal method used was developed considering the reutilization of solvent, water reflux, and a low thermal treatment to reduce pollutant emissions. As a result, a single high crystallinity olivine phase LFP was successfully synthesized. The use of ethylene glycol (EG) as a reaction medium enabled the formation of crystalline LFP at a low temperature (600 °C) with a nano-plate-like shape. The developed synthesis method was evaluated using life cycle analysis (LCA) to compare its environmental impact against the conventional production method. LCA demonstrated that the alternative green synthesis process represents 60% and 45% of the Resource Depletion impact category (water and fossil fuels, respectively) of the conventional method. At the same time, in the Climate change and Particular matter impact categories, the values correspond to 49 and 38% of the conventional method, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricio Cofré
- Departamento de Ingeniería Química y Procesos de Minerales and Center for Advanced Study of Lithium and Industrial Minerals (CELiMIN), Universidad de Antofagasta, Campus Coloso, Av. Universidad de Antofagasta, Antofagasta 02800, Chile
| | - María de Lucia Viton
- Departamento de Ingeniería Química y Procesos de Minerales and Center for Advanced Study of Lithium and Industrial Minerals (CELiMIN), Universidad de Antofagasta, Campus Coloso, Av. Universidad de Antofagasta, Antofagasta 02800, Chile
| | - Svetlana Ushak
- Departamento de Ingeniería Química y Procesos de Minerales and Center for Advanced Study of Lithium and Industrial Minerals (CELiMIN), Universidad de Antofagasta, Campus Coloso, Av. Universidad de Antofagasta, Antofagasta 02800, Chile
| | - Mario Grágeda
- Departamento de Ingeniería Química y Procesos de Minerales and Center for Advanced Study of Lithium and Industrial Minerals (CELiMIN), Universidad de Antofagasta, Campus Coloso, Av. Universidad de Antofagasta, Antofagasta 02800, Chile
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