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Zhang L, Bei Z, Li T, Qian Z. An injectable conductive hydrogel with dual responsive release of rosmarinic acid improves cardiac function and promotes repair after myocardial infarction. Bioact Mater 2023; 29:132-150. [PMID: 37621769 PMCID: PMC10444974 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2023.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Myocardial infarction (MI) causes irreversible damage to the heart muscle, seriously threatening the lives of patients. Injectable hydrogels have attracted extensive attention in the treatment of MI. By promoting the coupling of mechanical and electrical signals between cardiomyocytes, combined with synergistic therapeutic strategies targeting the pathological processes of inflammation, proliferation, and fibrotic remodeling after MI, it is expected to improve the therapeutic effect. In this study, a pH/ROS dual-responsive injectable hydrogel was developed by modifying xanthan gum and gelatin with reversible imine bond and boronic ester bond double crosslinking. By encapsulating polydopamine-rosmarinic acid nanoparticles to achieve on-demand drug release in response to the microenvironment of MI, thereby exerting anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, and anti-fibrosis effects. By adding conductive composites to improve the conductivity and mechanical strength of the hydrogel, restore electrical signal transmission in the infarct area, promote synchronous contraction of cardiomyocytes, avoid induced arrhythmias, and induce angiogenesis. Furthermore, the multifunctional hydrogel promoted the expression of cardiac-specific markers to restore cardiac function after MI. The in vivo and in vitro results demonstrate the effectiveness of this synergistic comprehensive treatment strategy in MI treatment, showing great application potential to promote the repair of infarcted hearts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linghong Zhang
- Department of Biotherapy, Cancer Center and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Zhongwu Bei
- Department of Biotherapy, Cancer Center and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Tao Li
- Department of Pediatric Cardiac Surgery, West China the Second Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Zhiyong Qian
- Department of Biotherapy, Cancer Center and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
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2
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Fujita A, Ueno K, Saito T, Yanagihara M, Kurazumi H, Suzuki R, Mikamo A, Hamano K. Hypoxic-conditioned cardiosphere-derived cell sheet transplantation for chronic myocardial infarction. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2019; 56:1062-1074. [PMID: 31329857 DOI: 10.1093/ejcts/ezz122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2018] [Revised: 03/16/2019] [Accepted: 03/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Cell therapy provides a suitable environment for regeneration through paracrine effects such as secretion of growth factors. Cardiosphere-derived cells (CDCs) have a high capacity for growth factor secretion and are an attractive target for clinical applications. In particular, a cell sheet technique was reported to have clinical advantages by covering a specific region. Here, we examined the effect of the hypoxic-conditioned (HC) autologous CDC sheet therapy on a rabbit chronic myocardial infarction model. METHODS CDC sheet function was assessed by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and quantified by polymerase chain reaction in vitro (days 1-3 of conditioning). The rabbit chronic myocardial infarction model was established by left coronary ligation. Autologous CDCs were isolated from the left atrial specimen; CDC sheets with or without 2-day HC were transplanted onto the infarcted hearts at 4 weeks. The cardiac function was assessed by an echocardiography at 0, 4 and 8 weeks. A histological analysis of the host hearts was performed by tomato lectin staining at 8 weeks. RESULTS The optimal HC duration was 48 h. HC significantly increased the mRNA expression levels of VEGF and ANG2 on day 2 compared to the normoxic-conditioned (NC) group. The HC group showed significant improvement in the left ventricular ejection fraction (64.4% vs 58.8% and 53.4% in the NC and control) and a greater lectin-positive area in the ischaemic region (HC:NC:control = 13:8:2). CONCLUSIONS HC enhances the paracrine effect of a CDC sheet on angiogenesis to improve cardiac function in the chronic myocardial infarction model, which is essential for cardiomyocyte proliferation during cardiac regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akira Fujita
- Department of Surgery and Clinical Science, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Ube, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Koji Ueno
- Department of Surgery and Clinical Science, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Ube, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Toshiro Saito
- Department of Surgery and Clinical Science, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Ube, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Masashi Yanagihara
- Department of Surgery and Clinical Science, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Ube, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Kurazumi
- Department of Surgery and Clinical Science, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Ube, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Ryo Suzuki
- Department of Surgery and Clinical Science, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Ube, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Akihito Mikamo
- Department of Surgery and Clinical Science, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Ube, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Kimikazu Hamano
- Department of Surgery and Clinical Science, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Ube, Yamaguchi, Japan
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3
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Yuan Z, Tsou YH, Zhang XQ, Huang S, Yang Y, Gao M, Ho W, Zhao Q, Ye X, Xu X. Injectable Citrate-Based Hydrogel as an Angiogenic Biomaterial Improves Cardiac Repair after Myocardial Infarction. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:38429-38439. [PMID: 31573790 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b12043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Implanted medical biomaterials are closely in contact with host biological systems via biomaterial-cell/tissue interactions, and these interactions play pivotal roles in regulating cell functions and tissue regeneration. However, many biomaterials degrade over time, and these degradation products also have been shown to interact with host cells/tissue. Therefore, it may prove useful to specifically design implanted biomaterials with degradation products which greatly improve the performance of the implant. Herein, we report an injectable, citrate-containing polyester hydrogel which can release citrate as a cell regulator via hydrogel degradation and simultaneously show sustained release of an encapsulated growth factor Mydgf. By coupling the therapeutic effect of the hydrogel degradation product (citrate) with encapsulated Mydgf, we observed improved postmyocardial infarction (MI) heart repair in a rat MI model. Intramyocardial injection of our Mydgf-loaded citrate-containing hydrogel was shown to significantly reduce scar formation and infarct size, increase wall thickness and neovascularization, and improve heart function. This bioactive injectable hydrogel-mediated combinatorial approach offers myriad advantages including potential adjustment of delivery rate and duration, improved therapeutic effect, and minimally invasive administration. Our rational design combining beneficial degradation product and controlled release of therapeutics provides inspiration toward the next generation of biomaterials aiming to revolutionize regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhize Yuan
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Ruijin Hospital , Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine , Shanghai 200025 , China
| | | | - Xue-Qing Zhang
- Engineering Research Center of Cell & Therapeutic Antibody, Ministry of Education, and School of Pharmacy , Shanghai Jiao Tong University , 800 Dongchuan Road , Shanghai 200240 , China
| | - Shixing Huang
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Ruijin Hospital , Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine , Shanghai 200025 , China
| | - Yang Yang
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Ruijin Hospital , Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine , Shanghai 200025 , China
| | - Mingzhu Gao
- Engineering Research Center of Cell & Therapeutic Antibody, Ministry of Education, and School of Pharmacy , Shanghai Jiao Tong University , 800 Dongchuan Road , Shanghai 200240 , China
| | | | - Qiang Zhao
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Ruijin Hospital , Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine , Shanghai 200025 , China
| | - Xiaofeng Ye
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Ruijin Hospital , Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine , Shanghai 200025 , China
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4
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CD90 Identifies Adventitial Mesenchymal Progenitor Cells in Adult Human Medium- and Large-Sized Arteries. Stem Cell Reports 2018; 11:242-257. [PMID: 30008326 PMCID: PMC6067150 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2018.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2017] [Revised: 06/01/2018] [Accepted: 06/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) reportedly exist in a vascular niche occupying the outer adventitial layer. However, these cells have not been well characterized in vivo in medium- and large-sized arteries in humans, and their potential pathological role is unknown. To address this, healthy and diseased arterial tissues were obtained as surplus surgical specimens and freshly processed. We identified that CD90 marks a rare adventitial population that co-expresses MSC markers including PDGFRα, CD44, CD73, and CD105. However, unlike CD90, these additional markers were widely expressed by other cells. Human adventitial CD90+ cells fulfilled standard MSC criteria, including plastic adherence, spindle morphology, passage ability, colony formation, and differentiation into adipocytes, osteoblasts, and chondrocytes. Phenotypic and transcriptomic profiling, as well as adoptive transfer experiments, revealed a potential role in vascular disease pathogenesis, with the transcriptomic disease signature of these cells being represented in an aortic regulatory gene network that is operative in atherosclerosis. We identify, in situ and in vivo, adventitial CD90+ MSCs in human arteries Human adventitial CD90+ cells fulfill all criteria for an MSC population Other markers, such as CD44 and PDGFRα, were non-specific for adventitial MSCs The CD90+ MSC transcriptomic signature suggests a major role in vascular disease
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Xu X, Wang W, Li Z, Kratz K, Ma N, Lendlein A. Surface geometry of poly(ether imide) boosts mouse pluripotent stem cell spontaneous cardiomyogenesis via modulating the embryoid body formation process. Clin Hemorheol Microcirc 2017; 64:367-382. [DOI: 10.3233/ch-168107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Xun Xu
- Institute of Biomaterial Science and Berlin-Brandenburg Center for Regenerative Therapies, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Teltow, Germany
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Weiwei Wang
- Institute of Biomaterial Science and Berlin-Brandenburg Center for Regenerative Therapies, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Teltow, Germany
| | - Zhengdong Li
- Institute of Biomaterial Science and Berlin-Brandenburg Center for Regenerative Therapies, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Teltow, Germany
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Karl Kratz
- Institute of Biomaterial Science and Berlin-Brandenburg Center for Regenerative Therapies, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Teltow, Germany
- Helmholtz Virtual Institute - Multifunctional Materials in Medicine, Berlin and Teltow, Teltow, Germany
| | - Nan Ma
- Institute of Biomaterial Science and Berlin-Brandenburg Center for Regenerative Therapies, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Teltow, Germany
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Helmholtz Virtual Institute - Multifunctional Materials in Medicine, Berlin and Teltow, Teltow, Germany
| | - Andreas Lendlein
- Institute of Biomaterial Science and Berlin-Brandenburg Center for Regenerative Therapies, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Teltow, Germany
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Helmholtz Virtual Institute - Multifunctional Materials in Medicine, Berlin and Teltow, Teltow, Germany
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6
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Psaltis PJ, Schwarz N, Toledo-Flores D, Nicholls SJ. Cellular Therapy for Heart Failure. Curr Cardiol Rev 2016; 12:195-215. [PMID: 27280304 PMCID: PMC5011188 DOI: 10.2174/1573403x12666160606121858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2015] [Revised: 12/18/2015] [Accepted: 12/31/1969] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathogenesis of cardiomyopathy and heart failure (HF) is underpinned by complex changes at subcellular, cellular and extracellular levels in the ventricular myocardium. For all of the gains that conventional treatments for HF have brought to mortality and morbidity, they do not adequately address the loss of cardiomyocyte numbers in the remodeling ventricle. Originally conceived to address this problem, cellular transplantation for HF has already gone through several stages of evolution over the past two decades. Various cell types and delivery routes have been implemented to positive effect in preclinical models of ischemic and nonischemic cardiomyopathy, with pleiotropic benefits observed in terms of myocardial remodeling, systolic and diastolic performance, perfusion, fibrosis, inflammation, metabolism and electrophysiology. To a large extent, these salubrious effects are now attributed to the indirect, paracrine capacity of transplanted stem cells to facilitate endogenous cardiac repair processes. Promising results have also followed in early phase human studies, although these have been relatively modest and somewhat inconsistent. This review details the preclinical and clinical evidence currently available regarding the use of pluripotent stem cells and adult-derived progenitor cells for cardiomyopathy and HF. It outlines the important lessons that have been learned to this point in time, and balances the promise of this exciting field against the key challenges and questions that still need to be addressed at all levels of research, to ensure that cell therapy realizes its full potential by adding to the armamentarium of HF management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Psaltis
- Co-Director of Vascular Research Centre, Heart Health Theme, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia 5000.
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7
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Santini MP, Forte E, Harvey RP, Kovacic JC. Developmental origin and lineage plasticity of endogenous cardiac stem cells. Development 2016; 143:1242-58. [PMID: 27095490 DOI: 10.1242/dev.111591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Over the past two decades, several populations of cardiac stem cells have been described in the adult mammalian heart. For the most part, however, their lineage origins and in vivo functions remain largely unexplored. This Review summarizes what is known about different populations of embryonic and adult cardiac stem cells, including KIT(+), PDGFRα(+), ISL1(+)and SCA1(+)cells, side population cells, cardiospheres and epicardial cells. We discuss their developmental origins and defining characteristics, and consider their possible contribution to heart organogenesis and regeneration. We also summarize the origin and plasticity of cardiac fibroblasts and circulating endothelial progenitor cells, and consider what role these cells have in contributing to cardiac repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Paola Santini
- Cardiovascular Research Centre, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York City, NY, USA
| | - Elvira Forte
- Developmental and Stem Cell Biology Division, Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute, 405 Liverpool Street, Darlinghurst 2010, Australia St Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Kensington 2052, Australia Stem Cells Australia, Melbourne Brain Centre, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Richard P Harvey
- Developmental and Stem Cell Biology Division, Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute, 405 Liverpool Street, Darlinghurst 2010, Australia St Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Kensington 2052, Australia Stem Cells Australia, Melbourne Brain Centre, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Kensington 2052, Australia
| | - Jason C Kovacic
- Cardiovascular Research Centre, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York City, NY, USA Stem Cells Australia, Melbourne Brain Centre, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
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8
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Feng Z, Mao Z, Dong S, Liu B. Protective effect of active perfusion in porcine models of acute myocardial ischemia. Mol Med Rep 2016; 14:3581-7. [PMID: 27573177 PMCID: PMC5042738 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2016.5665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2015] [Accepted: 12/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Mortality rates associated with off-pump coronary artery bypass (CAB) are relatively high, as the majority of patients requiring CAB are at a high risk for cardiac events. The present study aimed to establish porcine models of acute myocardial ischemia, and evaluate the protective role of shunt and active perfusion. A total of 30 pigs were randomly assigned to five groups, as follows: i) Sham (control); ii) A1 (shunt; stenosis rate, 55%); iii) A2 (shunt; stenosis rate, 75%); iv) B1 (active perfusion; stenosis rate, 55%); and v) B2 (active perfusion; stenosis rate, 75%) groups. Aortic pressure (P0), left anterior descending coronary pressure (P1), and coronary effective perfusion pressure (P1/P0) were measured. The expression levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), cardiac troponin (cTnI), creatine kinase-myocardial band (CK-MB), interleukin (IL)-6, IL-10, B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2), and caspase-3 were detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay or western blotting. The myocardial apoptosis rate was determined using the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling assay. Ischemia models with stenosis rates of 55 and 75% were successfully constructed following suturing of the descending artery. Compared with the control, the 55 and 75% stenosis groups demonstrated significantly decreased P1/P0, increased expression levels of TNF-α, cTnI, CK-MB, IL-6, IL-10 and caspase-3, an increased rate of myocardial apoptosis, and a decreased expression level of anti-apoptotic protein, Bcl-2. At 30 min following successful establishment of the model (ST segment elevation to 1 mm), group B demonstrated significantly increased P1/P0, decreased expression levels of TNF-α, cTnI, CK-MB, IL-6, IL-10 and caspase-3, a decreased rate of myocardial apoptosis, and an increased expression level of anti-apoptotic protein, Bcl-2. Furthermore, the current study indicated that active perfusion was more efficacious in maintaining myocardial perfusion and alleviating ischemic injury when compared with traditional shunt perfusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zanxiang Feng
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei 430060, P.R. China
| | - Zhifu Mao
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei 430060, P.R. China
| | - Shengjun Dong
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong 256600, P.R. China
| | - Baohui Liu
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, Binzhou Medical University Hospital, Binzhou, Shandong 256600, P.R. China
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9
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Marks ED, Kumar A. Thymosin β4: Roles in Development, Repair, and Engineering of the Cardiovascular System. VITAMINS AND HORMONES 2016; 102:227-49. [PMID: 27450737 DOI: 10.1016/bs.vh.2016.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The burden of cardiovascular disease is a growing worldwide issue that demands attention. While many clinical trials are ongoing to test therapies for treating the heart after myocardial infarction (MI) and heart failure, there are few options doctors able to currently give patients to repair the heart. This eventually leads to decreased ventricular contractility and increased systemic disease, including vascular disorders that could result in stroke. Small peptides such as thymosin β4 (Tβ4) are upregulated in the cardiovascular niche during fetal development and after injuries such as MI, providing increased neovasculogenesis and paracrine signals for endogenous stem cell recruitment to aid in wound repair. New research is looking into the effects of in vivo administration of Tβ4 through injections and coatings on implants, as well as its effect on cell differentiation. Results so far demonstrate Tβ4 administration leads to robust increases in angiogenesis and wound healing in the heart after MI and the brain after stroke, and can differentiate adult stem cells toward the cardiac lineage for implantation to the heart to increase contractility and survival. Future work, some of which is currently in clinical trials, will demonstrate the in vivo effect of these therapies on human patients, with the goal of helping the millions of people worldwide affected by cardiovascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- E D Marks
- Nanomedicine Research Laboratory, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States
| | - A Kumar
- Nanomedicine Research Laboratory, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis Schade
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, TU Dortmund University, Otto-Hahn-Strasse
6, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Alleyn T. Plowright
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, Cardiovascular and Metabolic Diseases Innovative
Medicines, AstraZeneca, Pepparedsleden 1, Mölndal, 43183, Sweden
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11
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Vascularisation to improve translational potential of tissue engineering systems for cardiac repair. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2014; 56:38-46. [PMID: 25449260 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2014.10.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2014] [Revised: 10/14/2014] [Accepted: 10/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Cardiac tissue engineering is developing as an alternative approach to heart transplantation for treating heart failure. Shortage of organ donors and complications arising after orthotopic transplant remain major challenges to the modern field of heart transplantation. Engineering functional myocardium de novo requires an abundant source of cardiomyocytes, a biocompatible scaffold material and a functional vasculature to sustain the high metabolism of the construct. Progress has been made on several fronts, with cardiac cell biology, stem cells and biomaterials research particularly promising for cardiac tissue engineering, however currently employed strategies for vascularisation have lagged behind and limit the volume of tissue formed. Over ten years we have developed an in vivo tissue engineering model to construct vascularised tissue from various cell and tissue sources, including cardiac tissue. In this article we review the progress made with this approach and others, together with their potential to support a volume of engineered tissue for cardiac tissue engineering where contractile mass impacts directly on functional outcomes in translation to the clinic. It is clear that a scaled-up cardiac tissue engineering solution required for clinical treatment of heart failure will include a robust vascular supply for successful translation. This article is part of a directed issue entitled: Regenerative Medicine: the challenge of translation.
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