The microRNAs of Caenorhabditis elegans

Pig Milk Exosome Packaging ssc-miR-22-3p Alleviates Pig Intestinal Epithelial Cell Injury and Inflammatory Response by Targeting MAPK14

Inflammatory diseases of the intestinal tract in piglets severely impair the economic performance of pig farms. Pig milk exosomes can encapsulate miRNAs which can then enter the piglet intestine to play an immunomodulatory role. Previously, we comparatively analyzed and identified exosomal miRNAs in the colostrum and mature milk of Bamei and Landrace pigs, and we screened for ssc-miR-22-3p, which is associated with inflammation and immune response; however, the role played by ssc-miR-22-3p in the immune response in IPEC-J2 cells is not yet clear. In this study, we first constructed a pig intestinal inflammatory response model using Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and Polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (Poly (I:C)), and we investigated the role of ssc-miR-22-3p targeting MAPK14 in the regulation of LPS and Poly (I:C)-induced inflammatory injury in IPEC-J2 cells by RT-qPCR, cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8), EdU staining, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity assay, and dual luciferase reporter gene assay. We successfully established LPS and Poly (I:C)-induced cell damage models in IPEC-J2 cells. The immune response of IPEC-J2 cells was stimulated by induction of IPEC-J2 cells at 10 μg/mL LPS and 20 μg/mL Poly (I:C) for 24 h. Overexpression of ssc-miR-22-3p decreased cytokine expression and promoted cell viability and proliferation. The functional enrichment analysis revealed that ssc-miR-22-3p targets genes enriched in the pathways of negative regulation of inflammatory response and bacterial invasion of epithelial cells. The validity of the binding site of ssc-miR-22-3p to MAPK14 was tested by a dual luciferase reporter gene. Pig milk exosome ssc-miR-22-3p promotes cell viability and proliferation by targeting MAPK14, and it alleviates LPS and Poly (I:C)-induced inflammatory responses in IPEC-J2 cells.

ame-miR-5119-Eth axis modulates larval-pupal transition of western honeybee worker

The miRNA plays a key role in the regulation of hormone signaling in insects. The pathways by which miRNAs affect hormone levels are unclear in the honeybee (Apis mellifera), an indispensable pollinator in nature. In this study, ame-miR-5119 was overexpressed and knocked down in larvae by feeding mimics and inhibitors, respectively, and we determined that ame-miR-5119 regulates hormone signaling through the target gene ecdysis triggering hormone (Eth), which affects the larval-pupal transition of workers. The results showed that ame-miR-5119 with a length of 19 nt targets six genes related to the hormone pathway. We focused on Eth and found that ame-miR-5119 and Eth exhibited reverse expression patterns during the transition from larval to pupal stages in workers. Dual luciferase assay confirmed the negative regulatory between ame-miR-5119 and Eth. Overexpression of ame-miR-5119 decreased the mRNA level of Eth, and the Eth receptor (Ethr) expression was not significantly affected, but the expression levels of juvenile hormone (JH) pathway related genes juvenile hormone acid methyltransferase (Jhamt) and Krüppel homolog 1 (Kr-h1) were significantly reduced. In contrast, knockdown of ame-miR-5119 increased the mRNA level of Eth, and the expression of Ethr, Jhamt and Kr-h1 was significantly upregulated. ame-miR-5119 did not affect larval body weight. The number of larvae overexpressing ame-miR-5119 survived in the prepupal stage was lower than that in the control group, and the number of pupations reduced at 11-day-old. The number of larvae that knocked down ame-miR-5119 survived in the prepupal stage was significantly higher than that in the control group, and the number of pupations increased at 11-day-old. These results indicated that ame-miR-5119 negatively regulates the expression of Eth, indirectly inhibits the expression of Ethr, Jhamt, and Kr-h1, and affects the JH biosynthesis, thereby preventing the metamorphic transition from larva to pupa in worker bees. These findings provide evidence that the miRNA regulation of hormone levels in honey bees.

Intracellular nonenzymatic in situ growth of layered nanosheet DNA architectures based on palindrome-chained dumbbell probes for miRNA imaging

MicroRNA (miRNA) represents a class of important potential biomarkers, and their intracellular imaging is extremely useful for fundamental research and early diagnosis of human cancers. Hybridization chain reaction (HCR) has been shown to be effective in detecting miRNA in living cells. However, its practical applications are still hampered by inefficient reaction kinetics and poor biological stability under complex intracellular conditions. To address these issues, we report a palindrome-mediated multiple hybridization chain reaction (P-HCR) system to better visualize intracellular miRNAs. In the presence of the target miRNA, a layered nanosheet DNA architecture (LSDA) can be assembled in situ via the palindrome-mediated multiple HCR process. We demonstrate that the biological stability of this reaction system could be significantly improved by designing the probes to dumbbell-shaped structures and the distance of hairpins was effectively decreased due to palindrome-chained effect. Consequently, miRNA can be quantitatively identified even at extremely low concentrations of 4.7 pM. The P-HCR system can effectively differentiate the expression levels of miRNA in different tumor cells and normal cells, as demonstrated in live cell tests and the results were in agreement with the PCR, which is considered the gold standard. The new (P-HCR) system has the potential to revolutionize miRNA imaging in living cells.

Multi-omics analysis of small RNA, transcriptome, and degradome to identify putative miRNAs linked to MeJA regulated and oridonin biosynthesis in Isodon rubescens

Isodon rubescens has garnered much attention due to its anti-tumor or anti-cancer properties. However, little is known about the molecular mechanism of oridonin biosynthesis leveraging the regulatory network between small RNAs and mRNAs. In this study, the regulatory networks of miRNAs and targets were examined by combining mRNA, miRNA, and degradome. A total of 348 miRNAs, including 287 known miRNAs and 61 novel miRNAs, were identified. Among them, 51 miRNAs were significantly expressed, and 36 miRNAs responded to MeJA. A total of 3066 target genes were associated with 228 miRNAs via degradome sequencing. Multi-omics analysis demonstrated that 27 miRNA-mRNA pairs were speculated to be involved in MeJA regulation, and 36 miRNA-mRNA pairs were hypothesized to be involved in the genotype-dependence of I. rubescens. Furthermore, 151 and 7 miRNA-mRNA modules were likely engaged in oridonin biosynthesis as identified by psRNATarget and degradome sequencing, respectively. Some miRNA-mRNA modules were confirmed via RT-qPCR. Moreover, miRNAs targeting plant hormone signal transduction pathway genes were identified, such as miR156, miR167, miR393, and PC-3p-19822_242. Collectively, our results demonstrate for the first time that miRNAs are identified in I. rubescens, and laid a solid foundation for further research on the molecular mechanism of oridonin biosynthesis mediated by miRNA.

A Compilation of the Diverse miRNA Functions in Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster Development

MicroRNAs are critical regulators of post-transcriptional gene expression in a wide range of taxa, including invertebrates, mammals, and plants. Since their discovery in the nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, miRNA research has exploded, and they are being identified in almost every facet of development. Invertebrate model organisms, particularly C. elegans, and Drosophila melanogaster, are ideal systems for studying miRNA function, and the roles of many miRNAs are known in these animals. In this review, we compiled the functions of many of the miRNAs that are involved in the development of these invertebrate model species. We examine how gene regulation by miRNAs shapes both embryonic and larval development and show that, although many different aspects of development are regulated, several trends are apparent in the nature of their regulation.

Plant responses to drought stress: microRNAs in action

Drought is common in most regions of the world, and it has a significant impact on plant growth and development. Plants, on the other hand, have evolved their own defense systems to deal with the extreme weather. The reprogramming of gene expression by microRNAs (miRNAs) is one of these defense mechanisms. miRNAs are short noncoding RNAs that have emerged as key post-transcriptional gene regulators in a variety of species. Drought stress modulates the expression of certain miRNAs that are functionally conserved across plant species. These characteristics imply that miRNA-based genetic changes might improve drought resistance in plants. This study highlights current knowledge of plant miRNA biogenesis, regulatory mechanisms and their role in drought stress responses. miRNAs functions and their adaptations by plants during drought stress has also been explained that can be exploited to promote drought-resistance among economically important crops.

Nematode-Applied Technology for Human Tumor Microenvironment Research and Development

Nematodes, such as Caenorhabditis elegans, have been instrumental to the study of cancer. Recently, their significance as powerful cancer biodiagnostic tools has emerged, but also for mechanism analysis and drug discovery. It is expected that nematode-applied technology will facilitate research and development on the human tumor microenvironment. In the history of cancer research, which has been spurred by numerous discoveries since the last century, nematodes have been important model organisms for the discovery of cancer microenvironment. First, microRNAs (miRNAs), which are noncoding small RNAs that exert various functions to control cell differentiation, were first discovered in C. elegans and have been actively incorporated into cancer research, especially in the study of cancer genome defects. Second, the excellent sense of smell of nematodes has been applied to the diagnosis of diseases, especially refractory tumors, such as human pancreatic cancer, by sensing complex volatile compounds derived from heterogeneous cancer microenvironment, which are difficult to analyze using ordinary analytical methods. Third, a nematode model system can help evaluate invadosomes, the phenomenon of cell invasion by direct observation, which has provided a new direction for cancer research by contributing to the elucidation of complex cell–cell communications. In this cutting-edge review, we highlight milestones in cancer research history and, from a unique viewpoint, focus on recent information on the contributions of nematodes in cancer research towards precision medicine in humans.

The effects of nested miRNAs and their host genes on immune defense against Bacillus thuringiensis infection in Caenorhabditis elegans

microRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNA-molecules that influence translation by binding to the target gene mRNA. Many miRNAs are found in nested arrangements within larger protein-coding host genes. miRNAs and host genes in a nested arrangement are often transcribed simultaneously, which may indicate that both have similar functions. miRNAs have been implicated in regulating defense responses against pathogen infection in C. elegans and in mammals. Here, we asked if miRNAs in nested arrangements and their host genes are involved in the C. elegans response against infection with Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). We performed miRNA sequencing and subsequently focused on four nested miRNA-host gene arrangements for a functional genetic analysis. We identified mir-58.1 and mir-2 as negative regulators of C. elegans resistance to Bt infection. However, we did not find any miRNA/host gene pair in which both contribute to defense against Bt.

MirCure: a tool for quality control, filter and curation of microRNAs of animals and plants

MOTIVATION

microRNAs (miRNAs) are essential components of gene expression regulation at the post-transcriptional level. miRNAs have a well-defined molecular structure and this has facilitated the development of computational and high-throughput approaches to predict miRNAs genes. However, due to their short size, miRNAs have often been incorrectly annotated in both plants and animals. Consequently, published miRNA annotations and miRNA databases are enriched for false miRNAs, jeopardizing their utility as molecular information resources. To address this problem, we developed MirCure, a new software for quality control, filtering and curation of miRNA candidates. MirCure is an easy-to-use tool with a graphical interface that allows both scoring of miRNA reliability and browsing of supporting evidence by manual curators.

RESULTS

Given a list of miRNA candidates, MirCure evaluates a number of miRNA-specific features based on gene expression, biogenesis and conservation data, and generates a score that can be used to discard poorly supported miRNA annotations. MirCure can also curate and adjust the annotation of the 5p and 3p arms based on user-provided small RNA-seq data. We evaluated MirCure on a set of manually curated animal and plant miRNAs and demonstrated great accuracy. Moreover, we show that MirCure can be used to revisit previous bona fide miRNAs annotations to improve miRNA databases.

AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION

The MirCure software and all the additional scripts used in this project are publicly available at https://github.com/ConesaLab/MirCure. A Docker image of MirCure is available at https://hub.docker.com/r/conesalab/mircure.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Interplay of Wnt β-catenin pathway and miRNAs in HBV pathogenesis leading to HCC

The prevalence of Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has been identified world-wide. Plethora of factors including chronic infection of HBV/HCV has been characterized for the development of HCC. Although the onset and progression of HCC has been linked with awry of various signaling pathways but precise mechanism, still lies under the multitude layers of curiosity. HBV is spreading with insane speed throughout the world and has been found a main culprit in HCC development after regulating the several cellular pathways including Wnt/β-catenin, Raf/MAPK, Akt and affecting cell multiplication to genomic instability. The role of Wnt/FZD/β-catenin signaling pathway is centralized in liver functions and its anomalous activation leads to HCC development. β-catenin mainly plays a pivotal role in canonical pathway of the system. Altered mainly overexpression of β-catenin along its nuclear localization tunes the aberrations in liver functions and set disease progression. In the development of HCC, modulation of Wnt/FZD/β-catenin signaling pathway by HBV has been established. As HBV infects the cell it affects the miRNAs, the master regulators of cell. Previous studies showed the connection between HBV and cellular miRNAs. In the present review, we unveiled how HBV is deciphering the cellular miRNAs like miR-26a, miR-15a, miR-16-1, miR-148a, miR-132, miR-122, miR-34a, miR-21, miR-29a, miR-222 and miR-199a/b-3p to modulate the Wnt/FZD/β-catenin signaling pathway and develop HCC. These HBV mediated miRNAs may prove future therapeutic options to treat HBV-Wnt/FZD/β-catenin associated HCC.

Digital direct detection of microRNAs using single molecule arrays

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are involved in many biological pathways, and detecting miRNAs accurately is critical for diagnosing a variety of diseases including cancer. However, most current methods for miRNA detection require lengthy sample preparation and amplification steps that can bias the results. In addition, lack of specificity and reproducibility give rise to various challenges in detection of circulating miRNAs in biological samples. In this work, we applied the Single Molecule Array (Simoa) technique to develop an ultra-sensitive sandwich assay for direct detection of multiple miRNAs without pre-amplification. We successfully detected miRNAs at femtomolar concentrations (with limits of detection [LODs] ranging from 1 to 30 fM) and high specificity (distinguishing miRNAs with a single nucleotide mismatch). This method was effective against a range of diverse target sequences, suggesting a general approach for miRNA detection. To demonstrate the practical application of this technique, we detected miRNAs in a variety of sample types including human serum and total RNA. The high sensitivity and simple workflow of the Simoa method represent excellent advantages for miRNA-based diagnostics of human diseases.

Gain and Loss of Small RNA Classes-Characterization of Small RNAs in the Parasitic Nematode Family Strongyloididae

The nematode family Strongyloididae is of particular interest because it contains important parasites of medical and veterinary relevance. In addition, species of this family can form parasitic and free-living generations and it also occupies an interesting phylogenetic position within the nematodes. Nematodes differ in several ways from other taxa with respect to their small noncoding RNAs. Recent comparative studies revealed that there is also considerable variability within the nematodes. However, no Strongyloididae species or close relative was included in these studies. We characterized the small RNAs of two developmental stages of three different Strongyloididae species and compared them with the well-studied free-living nematodes Caenorhabditis elegans and Pristionchus pacificus. Strongyloididae have conserved and taxon-specific microRNAs, many of which are differentially regulated between the two developmental stages. We identified a novel class of around 27-nucleotide-long RNAs starting with 5'G or A, of which a large fraction have the potential to target transposable elements. These RNAs most likely have triphosphates at their 5' ends and are therefore presumably synthesized by RNA-dependent RNA polymerases. In contrast to C. elegans but similarly to some other nematode taxa, Strongyloididae have no Piwi-interacting RNAs, nor do their genomes encode Argonaute proteins of the Piwi family. Finally, we attempted but failed to detect circulating parasite small RNAs in the blood of hosts.

Multiplex quantitative analysis of microRNA expression via exponential isothermal amplification and conformation-sensitive DNA separation

Expression profiling of multiple microRNAs (miRNAs) generally provides valuable information for understanding various biological processes. Thus, it is necessary to develop a sensitive and accurate miRNA assay suitable for multiplexing. Isothermal exponential amplification reaction (EXPAR) has received significant interest as an miRNA analysis method because of high amplification efficiency. However, EXPAR cannot be used for a broader range of applications owing to limitations such as complexity of probe design and lack of proper detection method for multiplex analysis. Here, we developed a sensitive and accurate multiplex miRNA profiling method using modified isothermal EXPAR combined with high-resolution capillary electrophoresis-based single-strand conformation polymorphism (CE-SSCP). To increase target miRNA specificity, a stem-loop probe was introduced instead of a linear probe in isothermal EXPAR to allow specific amplification of multiple miRNAs with minimal background signals. CE-SSCP, a conformation-dependent separation method, was used for detection. Since CE-SSCP eliminates the need for probes to have different lengths, easier designing of probes with uniform amplification efficiency was possible. Eight small RNAs comprising six miRNAs involved in Caenorhabditis elegans development and two controls were analyzed. The expression patterns obtained using our method were concordant with those reported in previous studies, thereby supporting the proposed method’s robustness and utility.

An Examination of the Role of Transcriptional and Posttranscriptional Regulation in Rhabdomyosarcoma

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is an aggressive family of soft tissue tumors that most commonly manifests in children. RMS variants express several skeletal muscle markers, suggesting myogenic stem or progenitor cell origin of RMS. In this review, the roles of both recently identified and well-established microRNAs in RMS are discussed and summarized in a succinct, tabulated format. Additionally, the subtypes of RMS are reviewed along with the involvement of basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) proteins, Pax proteins, and microRNAs in normal and pathologic myogenesis. Finally, the current and potential future treatment options for RMS are outlined.

Stage-Wise Identification and Analysis of miRNA from Root-Knot Nematode Meloidogyne incognita

In this study, we investigated global changes in miRNAs of Meloidogyne incognita throughout its life cycle. Small RNA sequencing resulted in approximately 62, 38, 38, 35, and 39 Mb reads in the egg, J2, J3, J4, and female stages, respectively. Overall, we identified 2724 known and 383 novel miRNAs (read count > 10) from all stages, of which 169 known and 13 novel miRNA were common to all the five stages. Among the stage-specific miRNAs, miR-286 was highly expressed in eggs, miR-2401 in J2, miR-8 and miR-187 in J3, miR-6736 in J4, and miR-17 in the female stages. These miRNAs are reported to be involved in embryo and neural development, muscular function, and control of apoptosis. Cluster analysis indicated the presence of 91 miRNA clusters, of which 36 clusters were novel and identified in this study. Comparison of miRNA families with other nematodes showed 17 families to be commonly absent in animal parasitic nematodes and M. incognita. Validation of 43 predicted common and stage-specific miRNA by quantitative PCR (qPCR) indicated their expression in the nematode. Stage-wise exploration of M. incognita miRNAs has not been carried out before and this work presents information on common and stage-specific miRNAs of the root-knot nematode.

Vertically encoded tetragonal hydrogel microparticles for multiplexed detection of miRNAs associated with Alzheimer's disease

Encoded hydrogel particles have attracted attention in diagnostics as these particles can be used for high-performance multiplexed assays. Here, we present encoded tetragonal hydrogel microparticles for multiplexed detection of miRNAs that are strongly related to Alzheimer's disease (AD). The particles are comprised of vertically distinct code and probe regions, and incorporated with quantum dots (QDs) in the code regions. By virtue of the particle geometry, the particles can be synthesized at a high production rate in vertically stacked micro-flows using hydrodynamic focusing lithography. To detect multiple AD-miRNAs, various code labels to identify the loaded probes are designed by changing wavelengths of QDs, increasing the number of code layers and adjusting the thickness of code layers. The probe regions are incorporated with complementary sequences of target miRNAs, and optimized for accurate and timely detection of AD-miRNAs. For proof of concept, we demonstrate the multiplexed capability of the particles by performing a 3-plexed assay of AD-miRNAs.

miR-200c: a versatile watchdog in cancer progression, EMT, and drug resistance

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are 20-22-nucleotide small endogenous non-coding RNAs which regulate gene expression at post-transcriptional level. In the last two decades, identification of almost 2600 miRNAs in human and their potential to be modulated opened a new avenue to target almost all hallmarks of cancer. miRNAs have been classified as tumor suppressors or oncogenes depending on the phenotype they induce, the targets they modulate, and the tissue where they function. miR-200c, an illustrious tumor suppressor, is one of the highly studied miRNAs in terms of development, stemness, proliferation, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), therapy resistance, and metastasis. In this review, we first focus on the regulation of miR-200c expression and its role in regulating EMT in a ZEB1/E-cadherin axis-dependent and ZEB1/E-cadherin axis-independent manner. We then describe the role of miR-200c in therapy resistance in terms of multidrug resistance, chemoresistance, targeted therapy resistance, and radiotherapy resistance in various cancer types. We highlight the importance of miR-200c at the intersection of EMT and chemoresistance. Furthermore, we show how miR-200c coordinates several important signaling cascades such as TGF-β signaling, PI3K/Akt signaling, Notch signaling, VEGF signaling, and NF-κB signaling. Finally, we discuss miR-200c as a potential prognostic/diagnostic biomarker in several diseases, but mainly focusing on cancer and its potential application in future therapeutics.

The laboratory domestication of Caenorhabditis elegans

Model organisms are of great importance to our understanding of basic biology and to making advances in biomedical research. However, the influence of laboratory cultivation on these organisms is underappreciated, and especially how that environment can affect research outcomes. Recent experiments led to insights into how the widely used laboratory reference strain of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans compares with natural strains. Here we describe potential selective pressures that led to the fixation of laboratory-derived alleles for the genes npr-1, glb-5, and nath-10. These alleles influence a large number of traits, resulting in behaviors that affect experimental interpretations. Furthermore, strong phenotypic effects caused by these laboratory-derived alleles hinder the discovery of natural alleles. We highlight strategies to reduce the influence of laboratory-derived alleles and to harness the full power of C. elegans.

Ancient and novel small RNA pathways compensate for the loss of piRNAs in multiple independent nematode lineages

Small RNA pathways act at the front line of defence against transposable elements across the Eukaryota. In animals, Piwi interacting small RNAs (piRNAs) are a crucial arm of this defence. However, the evolutionary relationships among piRNAs and other small RNA pathways targeting transposable elements are poorly resolved. To address this question we sequenced small RNAs from multiple, diverse nematode species, producing the first phylum-wide analysis of how small RNA pathways evolve. Surprisingly, despite their prominence in Caenorhabditis elegans and closely related nematodes, piRNAs are absent in all other nematode lineages. We found that there are at least two evolutionarily distinct mechanisms that compensate for the absence of piRNAs, both involving RNA-dependent RNA polymerases (RdRPs). Whilst one pathway is unique to nematodes, the second involves Dicer-dependent RNA-directed DNA methylation, hitherto unknown in animals, and bears striking similarity to transposon-control mechanisms in fungi and plants. Our results highlight the rapid, context-dependent evolution of small RNA pathways and suggest piRNAs in animals may have replaced an ancient eukaryotic RNA-dependent RNA polymerase pathway to control transposable elements.

A survey of the nematode phylum reveals loss of the Piwi/piRNA pathway in several lineages, but RNA-dependent RNA polymerases control transposable elements in its absence.

Transposable elements are segments of DNA that have the ability to copy themselves independently of the host genome and thus pose a severe threat to the integrity of the genome. Organisms have evolved mechanisms to restrict the spread of transposable elements, with small RNA molecules being one of the most important defense mechanisms. In animals, the predominant small RNA transposon-silencing mechanism is the piRNA pathway, which appears to be widely conserved. However, little is known about how small RNA pathways that target transposons evolve. In order to study this question we investigated small RNA pathways across the nematode phylum, using a well-studied model organism—the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans—as the starting point. Surprisingly we found that the piRNA pathway has been completely lost in all groups of nematodes bar those most closely related to C. elegans. This finding raises the intriguing question of how these nematodes are able to control transposable element mobilization without piRNAs. We discovered that there are other small RNA pathways that target transposable elements in these nematodes, employing RNA-dependent RNA polymerases in order to make small RNAs antisense to transposable elements. Intriguingly, the most ancient of these mechanisms, found in the most basal nematodes, is a Dicer-dependent RNA-directed DNA methylation pathway. This pathway shares strong similarity to transposon-silencing mechanisms in plants and fungi, suggesting that it might have been present in an ancient common ancestor of all eukaryotes. Our results highlight the rapid evolution of small RNA pathways and demonstrate the importance of examining molecular pathways in detail across a range of evolutionary distances.

MicroRNA expression and its clinical implications in Ewing's sarcoma

Ewing's sarcoma (EWS) is the second most common primary bone cancer, and is a predominant childhood malignant disease. Due to limited understanding of its pathogenesis and frequent occurrence of resistance to conventional types of treatment, its management remains difficult, and mortality is frequent. Development of EWS is a multistep process involving genetic and epigenetic alterations of protein-coding proto-oncogenes and tumour-suppressor genes. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have recently been discovered as a new category of non-protein coding; small RNA molecules that regulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. Substantial numbers of deregulated miRNAs have been documented in EWS and their biological significance has been confirmed in multiple functional experiments. Several studies have confirmed involvement of miRNAs in various steps of EWS pathogenesis, from occurrence to metastasis. Functionally, miRNA dysregulation may promote cell-cycle progression, confer resistance to apoptosis, and enhance invasiveness and metastasis. These miRNAs have opened a novel field in cancer research with potential clinical utilization for screening, diagnosis, prognostics and prediction of response to treatment. Elucidating biological aspects of miRNA dysregulation may help better understand pathogenesis of EWS and promote development of miRNA directed-therapeutics against it.

Identification of miRNAs and their targets in C. elegans

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small noncoding RNAs that direct posttranscriptional regulation of specific target genes. Since their discovery in Caenorhabditis elegans, they have been associated with the control of virtually all biological processes and are known to play major roles in development and cellular homeostasis. Yet the biological roles of most miRNAs remain to be fully known. Furthermore, the precise rules by which miRNAs recognize their targets and mediate gene silencing are still unclear. Systematic identification of miRNAs and of the RNAs they regulate is essential to close these knowledge gaps. Studies in C. elegans have been instrumental not only in the discovery phase of miRNA biology but also in the elucidation of mechanisms regulating miRNA expression, target recognition and regulation. This chapter highlights some of the main challenges still present in the field, while introducing the major studies and methods used to find miRNAs and their targets in the worm.

Role of microRNAs in the immunity process of the flat oyster Ostrea edulis against bonamiosis

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small (∼22nt) non-coding regulatory single strand RNA molecules that reduce stability and/or translation of sequence-complementary target. miRNAs are a key component of gene regulatory networks and have been involved in a wide variety of biological processes, such as signal transduction, cell proliferation and apoptosis. Many miRNAs are broadly conserved among the animal lineages and even between invertebrates and vertebrates. The European flat oyster Ostrea edulis is highly susceptible to infection with Bonamia ostreae, an intracellular parasite able to survive and proliferate within oyster haemocytes. Mollusc haemocytes play a key role in the immune response of molluscs as main cellular effectors. The roles of miRNAs in the immune response of O. edulis to bonamiosis were analysed using a commercial microarray platform (miRCURY LNA™ v2, Exiqon) for miRNAs. Expression of miRNAs in haemocytes from oysters with different bonamiosis intensity was compared. Differential expression was detected in 63 and 76 miRNAs when comparing heavily-affected with non-affected oysters and with lightly-affected ones, respectively. Among them, 19 miRNAs are known to be linked to immune response, being responsible of proliferation and activation of macrophages, inflammation, apoptosis and/or oxidative damage, which is consistent with the modulation of their expression in oyster haemocytes due to bonamiosis.

Epigenetic memory of longevity in Caenorhabditis elegans

A recent study by Greer et al. in the nematode C. elegans has shown transgenerational epigenetic inheritance of longevity in the descendants of worms deficient for subunits of a complex responsible for histone H3 lysine 4 trimethylation (H3K4me3). In this commentary, we discuss the implications of this epigenetic memory of longevity and the potential mechanisms underlying this phenomenon. The transgenerational inheritance of longevity could result from heritable depletion of H3K4me3 at particular aging-regulating gene loci that would only be progressively replenished. The epigenetic memory of longevity could also be explained by the transgenerational transmission of other molecules, for example other proteins or non-coding RNAs. The discovery of an epigenetic memory of longevity in worms raises the intriguing possibility that environmental cues modulating longevity in ancestors might affect subsequent generations in a non-Mendelian manner. Another remaining intriguing question is whether transgenerational inheritance of longevity also exists in other species, including mammals.

The decapping scavenger enzyme DCS-1 controls microRNA levels in Caenorhabditis elegans

In metazoans, microRNAs play a critical role in the posttranscriptional regulation of genes required for cell proliferation and differentiation. MicroRNAs themselves are regulated by a multitude of mechanisms influencing their transcription and posttranscriptional maturation. However, there is only sparse knowledge on pathways regulating the mature, functional form of microRNA. Here, we uncover the implication of the decapping scavenger protein DCS-1 in the control of microRNA turnover. In Caenorhabditis elegans, mutations in dcs-1 increase the levels of functional microRNAs. We demonstrate that DCS-1 interacts with the exonuclease XRN-1 to promote microRNA degradation in an independent manner from its known decapping scavenger activity, establishing two molecular functions for DCS-1. Our findings thus indicate that DCS-1 is part of a degradation complex that performs microRNA turnover in animals.

Caenorhabditis elegans small RNA pathways make their mark on chromatin

Endogenous small-RNA-mediated gene silencing pathways are generally recognized for their functions in halting gene expression by the degradation of a transcript or by translational inhibition. However, another important mode of gene regulation by small RNAs is mediated at the level of chromatin modulation. Over the past decade a great deal of progress on understanding the molecular mechanisms by which small RNAs can influence chromatin has been made for fungi, ciliated protozoans, and plants, while less is known about the functions and consequences of such chromatin-directed small RNA pathways in animals. Several recent studies in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans have provided mechanistic insights into small RNA pathways that impact chromatin throughout development. The "worm" has been instrumental in uncovering the mechanisms of RNA interference and remains a powerful system for dissecting the molecular means by which small RNA pathways impact chromatin in animals. This review summarizes our current knowledge of the various chromatin-directed small RNA pathways in C. elegans and provides insights for future study.

Biology and Mechanisms of Short RNAs in Caenorhabditis elegans

The significance of noncoding RNAs in animal biology is being increasingly recognized. The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans has an extensive system of short RNAs that includes microRNAs, piRNAs, and endogenous siRNAs, which regulate development, control life span, provide resistance to viruses and transposons, and monitor gene duplications. Progress in our understanding of short RNAs was stimulated by the discovery of RNA interference, a phenomenon of sequence-specific gene silencing induced by exogenous double-stranded RNA, at the turn of the twenty-first century. This chapter provides a broad overview of the exogenous and endogenous RNAi processes in C. elegans and describes recent advances in genetic, genomic, and molecular analyses of nematode's short RNAs and proteins involved in the RNAi-related pathways.

large-scale screening for targeted knockouts in the Caenorhabditis elegans genome

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is a powerful model system to study contemporary biological problems. This system would be even more useful if we had mutations in all the genes of this multicellular metazoan. The combined efforts of the C. elegans Deletion Mutant Consortium and individuals within the worm community are moving us ever closer to this goal. At present, of the 20,377 protein-coding genes in this organism, 6764 genes with associated molecular lesions are either deletions or null mutations (WormBase WS220). Our three laboratories have contributed the majority of mutated genes, 6841 mutations in 6013 genes. The principal method we used to detect deletion mutations in the nematode utilizes polymerase chain reaction (PCR). More recently, we have used array comparative genome hybridization (aCGH) to detect deletions across the entire coding part of the genome and massively parallel short-read sequencing to identify nonsense, splicing, and missense defects in open reading frames. As deletion strains can be frozen and then thawed when needed, these strains will be an enduring community resource. Our combined molecular screening strategies have improved the overall throughput of our gene-knockout facilities and have broadened the types of mutations that we and others can identify. These multiple strategies should enable us to eventually identify a mutation in every gene in this multicellular organism. This knowledge will usher in a new age of metazoan genetics in which the contribution to any biological process can be assessed for all genes.

Diversity in parasitic nematode genomes: the microRNAs of Brugia pahangi and Haemonchus contortus are largely novel

Background

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play key roles in regulating post-transcriptional gene expression and are essential for development in the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans and in higher organisms. Whether microRNAs are involved in regulating developmental programs of parasitic nematodes is currently unknown. Here we describe the the miRNA repertoire of two important parasitic nematodes as an essential first step in addressing this question.

Results

The small RNAs from larval and adult stages of two parasitic species, Brugia pahangi and Haemonchus contortus, were identified using deep-sequencing and bioinformatic approaches. Comparative analysis to known miRNA sequences reveals that the majority of these miRNAs are novel. Some novel miRNAs are abundantly expressed and display developmental regulation, suggesting important functional roles. Despite the lack of conservation in the miRNA repertoire, genomic positioning of certain miRNAs within or close to specific coding genes is remarkably conserved across diverse species, indicating selection for these associations. Endogenous small-interfering RNAs and Piwi-interacting (pi)RNAs, which regulate gene and transposon expression, were also identified. piRNAs are expressed in adult stage H. contortus, supporting a conserved role in germline maintenance in some parasitic nematodes.

Conclusions

This in-depth comparative analysis of nematode miRNAs reveals the high level of divergence across species and identifies novel sequences potentially involved in development. Expression of novel miRNAs may reflect adaptations to different environments and lifestyles. Our findings provide a detailed foundation for further study of the evolution and function of miRNAs within nematodes and for identifying potential targets for intervention.

Temporal and spatial regulation of microRNA activity with photoactivatable cantimirs

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that play numerous important roles in physiology and human diseases. During animal development, many miRNAs are expressed continuously from early embryos throughout adults, yet it is unclear whether these miRNAs are actually required at all the stages of development. Current techniques of manipulating microRNA function lack the required spatial and temporal resolution to adequately address the functionality of a given microRNA at a specific time or at single-cell resolution. To examine stage- or cell-specific function of miRNA during development and to achieve precise control of miRNA activity, we have developed photoactivatable antisense oligonucleotides against miRNAs. These caged oligonucleotides can be activated with 365 nm light with extraordinarily high efficiency to release potent antisense reagents to inhibit miRNAs. Initial application of these caged antimirs in a model organism (C. elegans) revealed that the activity of a miRNA (lsy-6) is required specifically around the comma stage during embryonic development to control a left/right asymmetric differentiation program in the C. elegans nervous system. This suggests that a transient input of lsy-6 during development is sufficient to specify the neuronal cell fate.

Networks in Caenorhabditis elegans

The network paradigm has become a pervasive theme in biology over the last decade, as increasingly large functional genomic datasets are being collected to interrogate regulatory influences, physical interactions, and genetic dependencies between genes, transcripts, and proteins. These 'molecular interaction' networks can be analyzed collectively and individually to define their global architecture and local patterns of connectivity. These structural features ultimately underlie functional properties such as robustness, modularity, component circuitry (e.g. feedback loops), dynamics, and responses to perturbations. This review focuses on recent progress in elucidating molecular interaction networks using different kinds of functional assays in the classical genetic model for animal development, the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans, with representative examples to illustrate current directions in different areas of network biology.

The many faces of RNAi

Small non-coding RNAs, through association with Argonaute protein family members, have a variety of functions during the development of an organism. Although there is increased mechanistic understanding of the RNA interference (RNAi) pathways surrounding these small RNAs, how their effects are modulated by subcellular compartmentalization and cross-pathway functional interactions is only beginning to be explored. This review examines the current understanding of these aspects of RNAi pathways and the biological functions of these pathways.

MicroRNA history: discovery, recent applications, and next frontiers

Since 1993, when the first small non-coding RNA was identified, our knowledge about microRNAs has grown exponentially. In this review, we focus on the main progress in this field and discuss the most important findings under a historical perspective. In addition, we examine microRNAs as markers of disease diagnosis and prognosis, and as new therapeutic targets.