Early maladaptive schemas in Finnish adult chronic male and female pain patients

Early maladaptive schemas in female patients with migraine and tension-type headache

Chronic headache is a serious clinical problem in women which psychological factors play major role and requires an approach with bio-psycho-social integrity. Psychiatric comorbidities such as anxiety disorder and major depression are frequent. Young described Early Maladaptive Schemas (EMS) as maladaptive and dysfunctional patterns that appear due to unpleasant situations occurred between patient and people who were important to him. EMS affect perception, emotions, thoughts and behaviors that makes a basis for many disorders. EMS are found to be related with depression, anxiety and somatization within recent literature. In literature, chronic pain and migraine's relationship with EMS were studied before in a few separate articles. However, there is a lack of data that compares the relationship between EMS and clearly distinguished headache types: migraine (MH) and tension-type headache (TTH) especially in female patients who are more prone to somatic complaints/findings. Our study directly compared three groups, migraine and tension type headache and healthy controls. 150 female patients with chronic headache were enrolled for study in consecutive fashion. Exclusion criteria were as follows: age < 18 or > 60 years, male gender, existence of comorbidity affecting central nervous system, headache due to drug/substance abuse, previous diagnosis of migraine with aura, previous diagnosis of psychotic disease, mental retardation, cognitive disorders, being in delirium state. Patients were grouped into two categories according to type of headache and a third control group. All patients were evaluated with Young Schema Questionnaire (YSQ) and their scores were noted and categorized in related schema domains. Sociodemographic data were comparable among groups. However, there were significant differences in terms of previous psychiatric diagnosis and psychiatric drug usage. When we compared YSQ scores, groups differed in many schema categories. MH group showed significantly higher scores in dependency/incompetency, unrelenting standards and punitiveness schemas when compared to remaining two groups. TTH group had significantly more points in emotional deprivation, vulnerability to harm or illness schemas among all groups. On the other hand, control group had significantly higher scores in insufficient self-discipline and entitlement/grandiosity schemas when compared to both MH and TTH groups. Presence of EMS in female patients with headache significantly differed from control group. Types of EMS were also significantly different between patients with MH and TTH among this whole headache group. We suggest that a comprehensive psychotherapeutic approach that targets to improve coping methods for distinct EMS in distinct headache types would provide critical aid to general treatment of headaches especially in resistant cases.

The YSQ-R: Predictive Validity and Comparison to the Short and Long Form Young Schema Questionnaire

The capacity of the Young Schema Questionnaire (YSQ) to predict psychopathology in specific clinical groups has consistently produced mixed findings. This study assessed three versions of the Young Schema Questionnaire (YSQ), including the long form (YSQ-L3), short form (YSQ-S3), and the recent Rasch-derived version, the YSQ-R, and their subscales, in predicting psychological distress in three different psychiatric groups and a non-clinical group. Test equating techniques were first applied to derive a common metric to ensure that each YSQ version was directly comparable. In the second stage, multiple regression analyses were employed to assess the predictive validity of each YSQ version and their subscales. The YSQ-R and YQ-L3 and their respective subscales were similar in their predictive power across all groups and conditions. The YSQ-S3 could not predict pre-treatment Early Maladaptive Schemas (EMS) and global symptom severity in the PTSD group, nor could it predict pre-treatment EMS and changes in global symptom severity in the Alcohol and Substance Use group. This was the first study to assess the predictive validity of three different versions of the YSQ. Our findings suggest that YSQ-R has the breadth of the YSQ-L3 and the shortness of the YSQ-S3, making it an ideal tool for assessing EMS across research and clinical settings.

Early maladaptive schemas differing according to sex may contribute to migraine among the youth

OBJECTIVE

Despite many diverse findings from studies about the comorbidity of psychiatric disorders and migraine, there are still unknown points. Schemas, which are the basic structures of cognition, are understudied. This study examined the effects of sex on early maladaptive schemas (EMSs) and the clinical characteristics of migraine in adolescents with migraine.

METHODS

The sample comprised 171 adolescents (67.3% females, n = 115) aged 12-18 years. The clinical characteristics of migraine (duration, severity, frequency of headaches, etc.), accompanying symptoms (nausea, vomiting, photophobia, etc.) and EMSs were evaluated depending on sex. Psychopathology and abuse history were analyzed as covariates in this study.

RESULTS

The mean age was 15.4 ± 1.9 among the females and 15.2 ± 2.0 among the males (p = 0.65). There was no difference in terms of migraine characteristics, and except for dizziness and pain relief by massage, all other symptoms were similar between the sexes. Female adolescent migraineurs significantly elevated scores for EMS of emotional deprivation, abandonment/instability, defectiveness/shame (disconnection/rejection domain), dependence/incompetence, vulnerability to harm/illness, failure (in impaired autonomy/performance domain) and negativity/pessimism (in hypervigilance/inhibition domain). On the other hand, male migraineurs had significantly elevated scores only in insufficient self-control/self-discipline (in impaired limits domain). Type of migraine and current psychopathology had no significant effect on the EMS domains, while sexual abuse history significantly affected some EMS.

CONCLUSION

Our study highlights the importance of screening for EMSs among adolescent patients with migraine. Schema therapy and similar therapeutic interventions may be used in the management of migraine in adolescents. Gender may also be important factor the schema therapy in adolescent migraine patients.

Family dysfunction: A comparison of chronic widespread pain and chronic localized pain

Previous studies have shown differences in the psychosocial factors related to chronic localized pain (CLP) and chronic widespread pain (CWP). However, no studies have done an evaluation of differences between CLP and CWP from the viewpoint of family functioning. We did a cross-sectional study in a tertiary care setting to investigate possible differences in the relation of CWP and CLP to family functioning.Patients with CLP (N = 126) or CWP (N = 75) were assessed for family functioning by the Family Assessment Device (FAD) and a comparison was done. Logistic regression analysis was used to estimate associations of family functioning subscales with pain status (CWP vs CLP), controlling for demographic variables, pain variables; pain duration, pain ratings, pain disability, and psychological factors; depression, anxiety, and catastrophizing. The odds ratios (ORs) for the presence of CWP were calculated.Compared to patients with CLP, patients with CWP showed a lower functional status for Roles and Affective Involvement. The ORs for CWP were significantly higher in lower functioning Roles (OR: 2.38, 95% CI: 1.21-4.65) and Affective Involvement (OR: 2.86, 95% CI: 1.56-5.24) after adjusting for demographic variables. The significant association of CWP to Roles and Affective Involvement remained after controlling for the pain variables and psychological factors.This study shows that the families of patients with CWP have poorer family functioning than those with CLP. Our findings suggest that early identification and interventions for the family dysfunction of chronic pain patients are important to the treatment and prevention of CWP.

The role of alexithymia: An 8-year follow-up study of chronic pain patients

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this 8-year follow-up study was to ascertain changes in alexithymia, depressiveness and pain situation in a sample of chronic pain patients and to explore the impact of alexithymia and depression on the outcome.

METHODS

Participants (n=83) were chronic non-malignant pain patients who completed self-report study questionnaires before their first visit to the pain clinic and again 8years later. Study variables consisted of pain intensity measured by the Visual Analogous Scale, the Pain Disability Scale, the Toronto Alexithymia Scale and the Beck Depression Inventory. The moderate improvement in the pain situation was estimated as a decrease of 30% or more in pain intensity or pain disability.

RESULTS

In the whole sample there was a significant decrease in pain intensity, pain disability and depressiveness, but only some of the patients achieved moderate improvement in their pain situation. Alexithymia remained stable during the 8-year period. The alexithymic patients had poorer pain situation and more depressiveness both at baseline and at follow-up. Unfavorable outcome in the pain situation was connected with male gender and alexithymia at baseline but not with depressiveness. Alexithymia and depressiveness were closely related to each other and the connection strengthened during the follow-up period.

CONCLUSION

Alexithymic depressive chronic pain patients represent a special, more disabled subgroup among chronic pain patients. The authors recommend screening for and identifying alexithymia and depression in chronic pain patients. Structural treatment protocols such as cognitive-behavioral therapy may benefit these patients. More research is needed to develop treatment interventions for alexithymic patients.