Biosecurity and biocontainment in alpaca operations

[Management and hygiene measures during an outbreak of herpes, influenza, strangles or infections with multidrug resistant bacteria]

The aim of this review is to describe general guidelines of hygiene measures in the horse stable as well as to provide current recommendations for an outbreak of a common infectious disease. General cleanliness, hand hygiene, avoidance of stress, regular deworming, and vaccinations belong to the basic hygiene measures in a horse herd. All new or returning equids should be submitted to a quarantine period as an important prevention measure. Repeated washing and disinfection of hands may prevent spreading of infectious agents to people and horses.The conception of a hygiene plan, including general biosecurity procedures and standard operating procedures in a case of an outbreak of an infectious disease, zoonosis, or colonization with multi-resistant bacteria is strongly recommended. As soon as the disease is suspected, extended hygiene measures including protective clothing, cleaning, disinfection, and isolation of potentially infected animals should be implemented. Prompt confirmation of the causative agent by examination of appropriate samples is crucial. It is important to adjust all safety measures based on the contagious nature of the respective pathogen and its major transmission routes. Apart from a lock-down of the stable, clinic or show grounds, the segregation of horses plays an important role. Implementation of the "traffic light system" is recommended. In this, the red group ("infected") include animals with clinical signs of the disease or that have been tested positive. All horses with possible pathogen contact should be allocated to a yellow group ("suspected") and regularly controlled for the signs of infection and fever. Clinically normal horses without contact to the infected animals belong to the green group ("healthy"). A change of protective clothing and an extensive disinfection should be performed when moving between the groups.The extended hygiene measures are to be maintained until all animals have been tested negative or fail to exhibit clinical signs of the disease for a certain time period.

Impact of cria protection strategy on post-natal survival and growth of alpacas (Vicugna pacos)

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Three management strategies (open corral, semi-open shed, cria body vest) were investigated in the Andes mountains of Perú for their impact on alpaca cria survival and body weight gain.

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The use of a cria body vest as a protection strategy for alpaca neonates improved survival to 12 weeks of age (100%) and improved cria body weight gain (0.17 kg / d) compared with a semi-open shed (76% survival; 0.14 kg/d) or an open corral (64% survival; 0.13 kd/d). Sex of the cria did not influence cria survival or body weight gain.

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Results of this study are useful because the use of a cria body vest can be implemented and semi-open sheds can be redesigned to improve survival and growth rate of crias reared in harsh environments.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of different management systems on the postnatal survival and growth of alpaca crias. The study was conducted during the alpaca calving season in the Peruvian Andes. Animals were fed on native pastures; during the day they went out to graze, but at night they were brought into a corral. A total of 150 alpaca singleton neonates were randomly assigned to one of three cria protection strategies immediately after consuming colostrum. The first group consisted of 50 crias who slept in an open-corral (OC) without shelter. The second group was comprised of 50 crias fitted with body vests (BV) who stayed overnight in an open-corral without shelter. The third group spent nights in a semi-open shed (SH). Cria survival was recorded daily, and body weight was recorded weekly. Survival to 12 weeks of age was higher (P = 0.001) for BV (100%) than for SH (76%) or OC (64%) which were not different from each other. Daily body weight gain (kg/day) during the first 12 weeks of life was higher (P < 0.001) for BV (0.17 ± 0.03) than for SH (0.14 ± 0.02) or OC (0.13 ± 0.04). There was no effect (P < 0.979) of cria sex on daily body weight gain. Results of this study revealed that fitting neonatal crias with a BV is a viable management strategy to enhance cria postnatal survival and daily body weight gain.

Metagenomic Next-Generation Sequencing Reveal Presence of a Novel Ungulate Bocaparvovirus in Alpacas

Viruses belonging to the genus Bocaparvovirus(BoV) are a genetically diverse group of DNA viruses known to cause respiratory, enteric, and neurological diseases in animals, including humans. An intestinal sample from an alpaca (Vicugnapacos) herd with reoccurring diarrhea and respiratory disease was submitted for next-generation sequencing, revealing the presence of a BoV strain. The alpaca BoV strain (AlBoV) had a 58.58% whole genome nucleotide percent identity to a camel BoV from Dubai, belonging to a tentative ungulate BoV 8 species (UBoV8). Recombination events were lacking with other UBoV strains. The AlBoV genome was comprised of the NS1, NP1, and VP1 proteins. The NS1 protein had the highest amino acid percent identity range (57.89-67.85%) to the members of UBoV8, which was below the 85% cut-off set by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. The low NS1 amino acid identity suggests that AlBoV is a tentative new species. The whole genome, NS1, NP1, and VP1 phylogenetic trees illustrated distinct branching of AlBoV, sharing a common ancestor with UBoV8. Walker loop and Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) motifs that are vital for virus infectivity were identified in NS1 and VP1 proteins, respectively. Our study reports a novel BoV strain in an alpaca intestinal sample and highlights the need for additional BoV research.

Seroprevalence of bovine viral diarrhea virus in alpacas in the United States and assessment of risk factors for exposure, 2006-2007

OBJECTIVE

To estimate seroprevalence of antibodies against bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) and incidence of seroconversion in alpacas in the United States during 2006 to 2007 and to evaluate associations between BVDV seropositive status and potential risk factors for exposure to BVDV.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional and longitudinal cohort study.

SAMPLE

Blood samples from 192 alpacas > 6 months old in 39 herds from 20 states; 40 owners who completed questionnaires.

PROCEDURES

550 US alpaca owners, stratified by state and randomly selected from a list of approximately 4,300 owners, were mailed a study description, voluntary participation request, and questionnaire. Thirty-nine owners submitted blood samples from up to 6 alpacas > 6 months old; 27 of 39 owners submitted another blood sample from the same alpacas > 1 month later. Samples were tested for serum virus-neutralizing antibodies against BVDV. Seropositive status was used to indicate BVDV exposure. Associations between seropositive status and potential risk factors for BVDV exposure described in questionnaires were evaluated by use of a Fisher exact test.

RESULTS

8 of 192 (4.2%) alpacas in 3 of 39 (7.7%) herds were seropositive. Larger herds had a greater percentage of seropositive alpacas than did smaller herds. No alpaca from which a second blood sample was obtained seroconverted during 292 to 1,460 alpaca-days (mean, 740 alpaca-days) of potential exposure.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Results contributed to information on assessment of BVDV prevalence, risk factors for exposure, and alpaca industry practices in 2006 to 2007 during the emergence of BVDV as a major disease in alpacas.

Socioeconomic implications of biosecurity practices in small-scale dairy farms

BACKGROUND

Biosecurity plays a crucial role in preventing contagious diseases and in increasing farm productivity.

OBJECTIVE

To determine technical and economic biosecurity scores of farms, and to examine the associations between biosecurity practices (BP) and producers' socioeconomic characteristics.

METHODS

The study was conducted on a total of 50 small-scale dairy farms that were randomly selected in Hatay, Turkey. A checklist consisting of 19 biosecurity practices was addressed to the farms. The technical and economic scoring systems were developed by the authors according to presence and cost of the each of the biosecurity practices.

RESULTS

The mean of the technical and economic scores were found to be 9.30 and 17.04, respectively. 'Treatment of sick animals' (98%), 'vaccination against the most common contagious diseases' (90%), and 'barn lime' (86%) were found to be the most commonly used applications. 'Testing for the most common contagious diseases before buying' (10%) was used at the lowest rate. Significant differences were found among the groups regarding education level (<.05), income class (<.05), and herd size (<.01). Biosecurity scores were significantly positively correlated with herd size (<.05) and producers' education level (<.01). There were statistically significant associations between the producers' socioeconomic characteristics and some of the biosecurity practices.

CONCLUSION

Training programs should be arranged to change the attitudes and perception of small-scale producers concerning poor biosecurity practices. In order to encourage producers to increase biosecurity scores, regulations regarding financial support and penalties could be quite useful at both the regional and national levels.

Globalization and Livestock Biosecurity

Globalization has resulted in enhanced trade in livestock and livestock products leading to increased risk of diseases to livestock and human beings. The emergence of highly contagious viral diseases of livestock and poultry such as foot-and-mouth disease, peste des petits ruminants, African swine fever (ASF), Newcastle disease, avian influenza and zoonotic diseases caused by viruses like Ebola, West Nile, Nipah, Hendra and swine influenza (H1N1) have necessitated the formulation of policies and regulatory frameworks for preventing ingress of exotic diseases and controlling dissemination of endemic diseases within the country. Biosecurity measures are important to maintain and improve animal health and reduce the risks. In this review, the risks of introduction of infections through livestock and livestock products, routes of transmission and general biosecurity measures to reduce these risks have been discussed.

The implementation of biosecurity practices and visitor protocols on non-commercial horse properties in New Zealand

A survey was conducted to investigate biosecurity practices on non-commercial horse properties, to describe the number of visits by horse professionals and any protocols that visitors were required to follow before interacting with resident horses. Data were collected in November 2009 during a cross-sectional study of non-commercial horse properties, in New Zealand, selected using generalised random-tessellated stratified design and a self-administered postal questionnaire. Data were described and the associations between property-level factors and biosecurity practices were analysed using logistic regression analysis. In total there were 791 respondents from non-commercial horse properties, of which 660 (83%) answer at least one question relating to biosecurity practices. Of the respondents, 95% had at least one biosecurity practice for arriving horses. Only 31% of properties isolated horses for more than four days, and few respondents checked for pyrexia or other clinical signs of infectious disease in new horses. Moving horses from a property was associated with the implementation of biosecurity practices and practices specific to the clinical signs of respiratory disease. Overall, 79% of properties had horse professional's visit, but only 33% of respondents reported biosecurity protocols for these visitors. Most properties had some knowledge about newly arriving horses, but the effectiveness of these practices for biosecurity were questionable, as few practices would stop disease spread to resident horses. Horse professionals are likely candidates for disease spread due to contact with horses, limited visitor protocols and the frequency of visits. The development of a plan to improve biosecurity for endemic and exotic disease is recommended.

Biosecurity on cattle farms: a study in north-west England

BACKGROUND

Few studies have considered in detail the range of biosecurity practices undertaken on cattle farms, particularly within the UK. In this study, 56 cattle farmers in a 100 km² area of north-west England were questioned regarding their on-farm biosecurity practices, including those relating to animal movements, equipment sharing and companies and contractors visiting the farms.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

There was great variation between farms in terms of the type of, and extent to which, biosecurity was carried out. For example, the majority of farmers did not isolate stock bought onto the farm, but a small proportion always isolated stock. Many farmers administered treatments post-movement, primarily vaccinations and anthelmintics, but very few farms reported carrying out any health checks after moving animals on. In addition, there appeared to be much variation in the amount of biosecurity carried out by the different companies and contractors visiting the farms. Deadstock collectors and contracted animal waste spreaders, although likely to have a high potential for contact with infectious agents, were reported to infrequently disinfect themselves and their vehicles.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

These findings suggest that although certain biosecurity practices are undertaken, many are carried out infrequently or not at all. This may be due to many factors, including cost (in time and money), lack of proven efficacies of practices and lack of relevant education of veterinary surgeons, producers and other herd health specialists. Further research exploring the reasons for the lack of uptake is imperative if preventive medicine is to be utilised fully by the farming industry.

Camelid herd health

The area of herd health is particularly important when considering camelid operations because of the high frequency of travel for exhibition, breeding, and boarding. This article outlines the considerations for routine husbandry, facility and animal maintenance, and infectious disease control in the form of biosecurity, vaccination, and health testing that should be included in any farm's herd-health plan. Veterinary input into the design of programs for biosecurity and infectious disease prevention is critical and requires an active veterinary client-patient relationship with identification of the goals of the operation. Risk assessments should be made based on farm activities and should be the foundation for herd-health program design.

Infectious causes of reproductive loss in camelids

Reproductive losses in camelids are due to infertility, pregnancy loss, udder diseases and neonatal mortality caused by a variety of infectious diseases. Uterine infection and abortion represent the major complaint in camelid veterinary practice. The major infectious organisms in endometritis and metritis are E. coli and Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus. Abortion rates due to infectious diseases vary from 10% to more than 70% in some areas. Leptospirosis, toxoplasmosis and chlamydiosis have been diagnosed as the major causes of abortion in llamas and alpacas. In camels, brucellosis and trypanosomiasis represent the major causes of infectious abortion in the Middle East and Africa. Mastitis is rare in South American camelids. The prevalence of subclinical udder infection in camels can reach very high proportions in dairy camels. Udder infections are primarily due to Streptococcus agalactiae and Staphylococcus aureus. Neonatal mortality is primarily due to diarrhea following failure of passive transfer and exposure to E. coli, rotavirus, coronavirus, Coccidia and Salmonella. This paper reviews the etio-pathogenesis of these causes of reproductive losses, as well as the major risk factors and strategies to prevent their occurrence.