Avoidance distance test in goats: A comparison with its application in cows

Human-Animal Interactions in Dairy Goats

It is widely assumed that the quality of human-animal interactions may have a strong impact on animals' living conditions and is fundamental to improving farm animal welfare. This work aims to evaluate the effectiveness of methods for assessing and monitoring the welfare of lactating goats. In particular, attention was paid to the methods regarding the assessment of the human-animal relationship. The experimental protocol included three tests and observations in the milking parlour, namely: avoidance distance in the pen, avoidance distance at the manger, approach test within 2 min and behavioural observations of stockmen and animals during milking. Fourteen dairy goat farms located in the province of Potenza (Southern Italy) with flocks ranging in size from 67 to 450 lactating goats were used. All farms raised the Rossa Mediterranean goat breed. The percentage of goats that permitted themselves to be touched at the manger (mean ± SD: 12.36 ± 9.50) was higher than that found in the pen (9.67 ± 11.86) and within 2 min inside the pen (8.19 ± 13.78). The avoidance distance at the manger (0.63 ± 0.28 m) was shorter than that recorded in the pen (1.19 ± 0.58 m). Avoidance distance at the manger was positively correlated with that in the pen (Spearman correlation test (r_s) = 0.607; p < 0.01), as was the percentage of goats touched at the manger and in the pen (r_s = 0.647; p < 0.01). Approximately 60% of the stockman interactions observed during milking were neutral, while positive and negative interactions had similar values to each other, approximately 20%. The number of neutral stockman interactions was positively correlated with the percentage of goats moving when approached at a distance >1 m (r_s = 0.799; p < 0.001) and was negatively correlated with the animals touched at the manger (r_s = -0.607; p < 0.05), in the pen (r_s = -0.613; p < 0.05) and within 2 min (r_s = -0.669; p < 0.01). As regards the degree of association between the behaviour of the milker and the animals during the milking routine, the percentage of neutral interactions tended to be positively correlated only with the number of kicks performed by the animals (r_s = 0.476; p < 0.10). It is concluded that avoidance distance at the manger and in the pen, as for other farm animals, are valid tests to evaluate the human-animal relationship in goats. In addition, avoidance distance at the manger may reliably replace the test performed in the pen.

Humans and Goats: Improving Knowledge for a Better Relationship

Simple Summary

A good relationship between humans (e.g., farmers, owners) and farm animals is vital for the well-being of both parties: on the one hand, people are satisfied with their work, which becomes less stressful and more profitable, and may receive social benefits in terms of education or animal-assisted therapy; on the other hand, animals are rewarded by the presence of humans and are not afraid of them. Goats have high cognitive and communicative abilities towards humans: recognising these abilities helps humans to work properly on the quality of this relationship that is built from the first hours of the goat kids’ life, thanks to frequent and positive contacts (e.g., stroking, talking in a calm voice). Improving the quality of this relationship is an investment in the future of livestock farming and meets public demands for ethical and sustainable production. This review outlines the characteristics and predisposing factors for the establishment of a good human–goat relationship and for its evaluation.

Abstract

There is consensus that the quality of the human–animal relationship (HAR) is relevant to guarantee appropriate levels of animal welfare. Given the impact that HAR may have on both goats and human beings, the aim of the present review is to elucidate: (1) how humans and goats communicate; (2) which are the factors affecting human–goat interactions; (3) how we can measure the quality of this relationship. The systematic review led to the selection of 58 relevant articles. Effective human–goat communication takes place by means of visual, tactile and auditory stimuli and, to a less extent, via olfactory and gustative stimuli. Goats have well-developed socio-cognitive abilities and rely on humans to get relevant information. A deep knowledge of goats’ communication means and socio-cognitive abilities may greatly help improving the human–goat relationship. Management practices (e.g., rearing methods, amount and quality of interactions), as well as genetic selection for suitable individual traits, may contribute to improving HAR. Several measures to assess the quality of HAR have been validated, including avoidance in the pen and at the feeding rack and latency to first contact. Finally, farmers’ attitudes and empathy with goats, as well as their motivation to work with animals, should be improved through appropriate training.

Animal-Based Indicators for On-Farm Welfare Assessment in Goats

Simple Summary

Welfare assessments for animals require the use of specific indicators. These indicators should be practical and easy to use in an on-farm environment while correctly reflecting on the animals’ welfare. Our aim was to review literature on such indicators for goats, as small ruminants have not received as much attention as other farm animals in the field of welfare assessment. Some indicators such as lameness are already well investigated and suitable for use in goat welfare assessments. Others, for example, lying behaviour, need more research, as the limited amount of knowledge restrains the information on validity or usefulness. As in other animals, the welfare of goats has become an increasingly important issue in public discourse. Our overview on indicators aids in developing tools to measure and improve the welfare of goats.

Abstract

This review describes the current state of knowledge relating to scientific literature on welfare indicators for goats. Our aim was to provide an overview of animal-based indicators for on-farm welfare assessments. We performed a literature search and extracted 96 relevant articles by title, abstract, and full-text screening. Out of these articles, similar indicators were aggregated to result in a total of 32 welfare indicators, some of which were covered in multiple articles, others in only a single one. We discuss a set of three established assessment protocols containing these indicators, as well as all individual indicators which were covered in more than one article. As single indicators, we identified lameness, body condition score (BCS), qualitative behaviour assessment (QBA), and human–animal relationship (HAR) tests with substantial evidence for sufficient validity to assess welfare in goats. A multitude of indicators (e.g., hair coat condition) was studied less intensively but was successfully used for welfare assessments. For some indicators (e.g., oblivion, lying behaviour), we highlight the need for future research to further validate them or to optimise their use in on-farm welfare assessments. Moreover, further investigations need to include kids, bucks, and meat and fibre goats, as well as extensively kept goats as the literature predominantly focuses on dairy goats in intensive production systems.

Performance of goats in a detour and a problem-solving test following long-term cognitive test exposure

Cognitive research in long-lived species commonly involves using the same animals in different experiments. It is unclear whether the participation in cognitive tests can notably alter the performance of individuals in subsequent conceptually different tests. We therefore investigated whether exposure to cognitive tests affects future test performance of goats. We used three treatment groups: goats with long-term exposure to human-presented object-choice tests (for visual discrimination and reversal learning tests + cognitive test battery), goats that were isolated as for the test exposure but received a reward from the experimenter without being administered the object-choice tests, and goats that were isolated but neither received a reward nor were administered the tests. All treatment groups were subsequently tested in two conceptually different cognitive tests, namely a spatial A-not-B detour test and an instrumental problem-solving test. We tested dairy goats, selected for high productivity, and dwarf goats, not selected for production traits, each at the same two research sites. We did not find notable differences between treatments with respect to the goats' detour or problem-solving performance. However, high variation was observed between the research sites, the selection lines, and among individuals, highlighting potential pitfalls of making accurate comparisons of cognitive test performances.

Welfare of Native Goat Breeds in Serbia-Emphasis on Parasitological Infections

Native goat breeds in Serbia has been recognized as an important element of regional agrobiodiversity and play an important role in the safeguarding of cultural and traditional heritage. The aim of this study was to identify the main welfare issues likely to be encountered in extensive goat farming systems with an emphasis on parasitological infections. The study was conducted during the winter season on four small farms of native Balkan and Serbian white goats. For welfare assessment, animal-based indicators from AWIN protocol for goats were used. All fecal samples for parasites were qualitatively and quantitatively examined. The main welfare issues identified were poor hair coat condition (62.79%), dirty and light soiling hindquarters (31.40%), thin body condition score (26.74%), abscesses (19.78%), and udder asymmetry (18.60%). In addition, an important and prevalent welfare problem identified across all farms was parasite infection and weak significant (p < 0.001) correlation between certain parasites (Strongylidae, Moniezia spp., Buxtonella sulcate, and Protostrongylidae) and welfare indicators such as poor hair coat condition and nasal discharge. The results of this study provided the first overview and valuable insight into the impact of extensive systems on the welfare of native goats in the Balcan region.

Maternal deprivation affects goat kids' stress coping behaviour

Maternal deprivation early in life has been shown to disrupt neonates' development. Nevertheless, separating the young animals from their dams soon after birth remains a common practice in dairy farm husbandry. This study investigated the effects of different rearing conditions on goat kids' stress coping abilities. Twenty female kids were raised together with their dams ('dam-reared') in a herd composed of other lactating goats and kids, while twenty female kids were separated from their dams three days after birth and reared together with same-age peers ('artificially-reared') and visually separated from the lactating herd. All kids shared the same father and two thirds of the kids were twins allocated to each treatment. At one month of age, kids were individually submitted to a series of tests: a novel arena test, a novel goat test, and a novel object test. These tests happened consecutively in this order, and lasted 180 s each. The kids' behaviour was video-recorded and analysed post-hoc by an observer blind to treatments. Five weeks after weaning, the kids were also subjected to human-animal relationship tests. During the three behavioural tests, artificially-reared kids vocalized more (P < 0.001), reared more (P < 0.001), ran more (P = 0.002) and jumped more (P < 0.001) than dam-reared kids, but self-groomed less (P = 0.01) and urinated less (P = 0.05) than dam-reared kids. During the novel goat test and the novel object test, artificially-reared kids gazed less at the novel goat and the novel object (P = 0.02) and initiated contact more quickly (P = 0.05) with the novel goat and the novel object than dam-reared kids. The treatments however did not differ significantly in salivary cortisol response to the tests (P = 0.96). Artificially-reared kids showed significantly less avoidance of humans than dam-reared kids during the human-animal relationship tests after weaning (P < 0.001). The higher intensity of their behavioural reaction showed that artificially-reared kids react to stressful situations more actively than dam-reared kids. The difference between the three tests were only minor, suggesting a general change in the kids' response to stressful situations rather than a specific change in their social response tested with an unfamiliar adult. Hence, artificial rearing affects goat kids' behavioural response to challenges, probably maternal deprivation being the main factor.

The human-animal relationship in dairy animals

The present study aims to identify margins for the improvement of dairy animal welfare and production based on the quality of the human-animal relationship (HAR). The main tool proposed to improve the quality of HAR in dairy animals is training of stock-people by targeting their attitude and behaviour. Given that a good quality HAR may benefit the welfare of dairy animals and productivity, new technologies, by monitoring the handling routine on farm, may be more effective in promoting good practices. In particular, the implementation of new technologies may allow identification of specific inappropriate behaviours to be targeted at stockperson level, thus increasing the efficacy of training. However, an issue related to the introduction of new technologies in the farms, particularly in those that follow traditional farming practices, is the resistance to innovation which may be encountered.

INVITED REVIEW: Farm size and animal welfare

Critics of agricultural intensification have argued that the transition from smaller to larger farms has compromised animal welfare. To critically examine evidence relevant to this claim, we reviewed more than 150 publications that examined the relationship between farm size and at least one animal welfare indicator. Although much of this literature focuses on dairy cattle, we also reference other farmed species where appropriate. We found little evidence of any simple relationship, negative or positive, between farm size and animal welfare. Instead, the evidence suggests that larger farms provide some opportunities to improve animal welfare but may also create welfare risks. For example, larger farms permit more specialized and professional management of animal health but can make it more difficult to accommodate outdoor access that some view as integral to animal welfare. Future research should attempt to specify the underlying casual mechanisms by which statistical associations between farm size and indicators of welfare are believed to occur. We also suggest that policy and advocacy efforts aimed at reversing increases in farm size would be better directed toward improving welfare on farms of all sizes.

A systematic review of animal based indicators of sheep welfare on farm, at market and during transport, and qualitative appraisal of their validity and feasibility for use in UK abattoirs

In the UK, it has been suggested that abattoirs are ideal locations to assess the welfare of sheep as most are slaughtered at abattoirs either as finished lambs or cull ewes. Data from abattoirs could provide benchmarks for welfare indicators at a national level, as well as demonstrating how these change over time. Additionally, feedback could be provided to farmers and regulatory authorities to help improve welfare and identify high or low standards for quality assurance or risk-based inspections. A systematic review of the scientific literature was conducted, which identified 48 animal-based indicators of sheep welfare that were categorised by the Five Freedoms. Their validity as measures of welfare and feasibility for use in abattoirs were evaluated as potential measures of prior sheep welfare on the farm of origin, at market, or during transportation to the abattoir. A total of 19 indicators were considered valid, of which nine were considered theoretically feasible for assessing sheep welfare at abattoirs; these were body cleanliness, carcass bruising, diarrhoea, skin lesions, skin irritation, castration, ear notching, tail docking and animals recorded as 'obviously sick'. Further investigation of these indicators is required to test their reliability and repeatability in abattoirs. Novel welfare indicators are needed to assess short-term hunger and thirst, prior normal behaviour and long-term fear and distress.

The behaviour and welfare of buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) in modern dairy enterprises

This review deals with the behaviour of river buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis), in confinement and in extensive conditions, also focusing on the effects of different housing and rearing conditions on their welfare. The behavioural repertoire expressed by buffaloes in extensive and intensive conditions is similar to those displayed by other domestic ruminants. However, through natural selection, buffaloes have also acquired several morphological, physiological and behavioural (i.e. wallowing) adaptations to hot climatic conditions. Buffaloes kept in intensive conditions and having no access to pasture and water for wallowing extend their periods of idling and are less often involved in investigative activities. Confinement is also associated with a reduction of space; however, no specific studies have been carried out to determine the specific requirements of this species. Space restriction can adversely affect various aspects of buffalo welfare, such as health (increased levels of lesions and injuries), social behaviour (increased number of agonistic interactions) and heat dissipation. The buffaloes, originating from tropical areas, are well adapted to large variations in food availability and quality, and to dietetic unbalances. As to human animal relationship, it has been observed that the incidence of stepping and kicking behaviour of buffaloes in the milking parlour is positively correlated with the frequency of oxytocin injections, whereas the frequency of positive stockperson interactions with the animals such as talking quietly, petting and gentle touching are negatively correlated with the number of kicks during milking. Data from farms where both dairy cattle and buffaloes are present show that avoidance distance measured in the pen is lower in buffaloes than in cattle. This may be attributed to the fact that buffaloes are generally recognised to be curious animals. Finally, the effects of different farming practices on animal-related indicators are described. However, these measures should be integrated into a monitoring protocol, such as the Welfare Quality® scheme, to reliably assess buffalo welfare in the current intensive farming conditions.