Remote regulation of type 2 immunity by intestinal parasites

The role of helminths and their antigens in cancer therapy: insights from cell line models

BACKGROUND

Recent articles have explored the effect of worms on cancer cells. This review focused on various cell cultures employed to understand which cells are more commonly and less utilized.

METHODS

The present review analyzed studies published between 2013 and 2023 to obtain information about different cell cultures used in cancer studies involving helminths. Databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar, HINARI, and the Cochrane Library were searched.

RESULTS

This search yielded 130 records, but 97 papers were excluded because they were either irrelevant to the research topic (n = 72) or contradicted the research idea (n = 25).The remaining twenty-one articles focused on different types of worms, such as Echinococcus granulosus, Clonorchis sinensis, Opisthorchis felineus, Opisthorchis viverrini, Trichinella spiralis, Toxocara canis, and Heligmosomoides polygyrus.

CONCLUSION

Due to the presence of numerous antigens, parasites at different growth stages can impact various cells through unknown mechanisms. Given the high diversity of antigens and their effects, artificial intelligence can assist in predicting initial outcomes for future studies.

Trained immunity: A “new” weapon in the fight against infectious diseases

Innate immune cells can potentiate the response to reinfection through an innate form of immunological memory known as trained immunity. The potential of this fast-acting, nonspecific memory compared to traditional adaptive immunological memory in prophylaxis and therapy has been a topic of great interest in many fields, including infectious diseases. Amidst the rise of antimicrobial resistance and climate change—two major threats to global health—, harnessing the advantages of trained immunity compared to traditional forms of prophylaxis and therapy could be game-changing. Here, we present recent works bridging trained immunity and infectious disease that raise important discoveries, questions, concerns, and novel avenues for the modulation of trained immunity in practice. By exploring the progress in bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic diseases, we equally highlight future directions with a focus on particularly problematic and/or understudied pathogens.

The Role of Nuclear Factor Kappa B (NF-κB) in the Immune Response against Parasites

The immune system consists of various cells, organs, and processes that interact in a sophisticated manner to defend against pathogens. Upon initial exposure to an invader, nonspecific mechanisms are raised through the activation of macrophages, monocytes, basophils, mast cells, eosinophils, innate lymphoid cells, or natural killer cells. During the course of an infection, more specific responses develop (adaptive immune responses) whose hallmarks include the expansion of B and T cells that specifically recognize foreign antigens. Cell to cell communication takes place through physical interactions as well as through the release of mediators (cytokines, chemokines) that modify cell activity and control and regulate the immune response. One regulator of cell states is the transcription factor Nuclear Factor kappa B (NF-κB) which mediates responses to various stimuli and is involved in a variety of processes (cell cycle, development, apoptosis, carcinogenesis, innate and adaptive immune responses). It consists of two protein classes with NF-κB1 (p105/50) and NF-κB2 (p100/52) belonging to class I, and RelA (p65), RelB and c-Rel belonging to class II. The active transcription factor consists of a dimer, usually comprised of both class I and class II proteins conjugated to Inhibitor of κB (IκB). Through various stimuli, IκB is phosphorylated and detached, allowing dimer migration to the nucleus and binding of DNA. NF-κB is crucial in regulating the immune response and maintaining a balance between suppression, effective response, and immunopathologies. Parasites are a diverse group of organisms comprised of three major groups: protozoa, helminths, and ectoparasites. Each group induces distinct effector immune mechanisms and is susceptible to different types of immune responses (Th₁, Th₂, Th₁₇). This review describes the role of NF-κB and its activity during parasite infections and its contribution to inducing protective responses or immunopathologies.