Mid- to long-term outcome of disc excision in adolescent disc herniation

Percutaneous endoscopic lumbar discectomy in lumbar disc herniation with posterior ring apophysis fracture: A case report in a 15-year-old child

RATIONALE

Lumbar disc herniation (LDH) with posterior ring apophysis fracture (PRAF) is rather rare in children, and in all age-stratified LDH patients, the incidence of RAF was 5.3% to 7.5%. Interestingly, the incidence of LDH with RAF in children (15%-32%) is several times higher than in adults, the mis-diagnosis of which may lead to delayed treatment.

PATIENT CONCERNS

Here, we report a 15-year-old schoolboy who suffered from sudden low back pain and radiating pain in both lower limbs after sport activities. Symptoms persisted after 3 months of conservative treatment. Computer radiography and magnetic resonance imaging indicated central disc herniation with PRAF at L4-5.

DIAGNOSIS

LDH with PRAF.

INTERVENTIONS

The herniated disc and epiphyseal fragments were successfully excised by the percutaneous endoscopic lumbar discectomy minimal-invasive technique.

OUTCOMES

Surgery was successful. Symptoms were immediately relieved postoperatively with a wound of only about 7.0 mm. Discharged on the next day. No perioperative complications occurred. Moreover, the imaging and clinical outcomes were also more satisfactory during the post-operative 15 months outpatient follow-up.

LESSONS

Pediatric LDH with PRAF is extremely uncommon, and there is a lack of training among physicians for such cases, which may lead to delayed diagnosis and treatment. Once a diagnosis for LDH with PRAF is established, percutaneous endoscopic lumbar discectomy is a safe and effective minimally invasive treatment to be considered, and we hope that this technique can provide more assistance in the future.

Lumbar disc herniation in juveniles: A case-control study of MRI characteristics and etiological insights

Lumbar disc herniation (LDH) is rare in juveniles. LDH occurring at age 20 years or younger is referred to as juvenile disc herniation (JDH). While adult LDH is regarded as an advanced stage of disc degeneration, it remains unclear why intervertebral discs rupture in youth. This study aimed to characterize magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings of JDH and investigate possible etiological factors. From 2013 to 2020, JDH patients and controls were identified and interviewed to assess demographics, general lifestyles, and family histories. MRIs were evaluated for disc degeneration, epiphyseal ring separation, Modic changes and endplate lesions. The relationships between JDH and suspected risk factors were examined. A total of 297 JDH patients (199 boys and 98 girls, age 17.3 ± 2.1 years) and 185 controls (age 17.1 ± 2.4 years) were studied. Age, body mass index, exposures to daily physical labor, regular exercise, and daily sitting time were similar between JDH cases and controls. A family medical history of serious back pain was more common in JDH patients than in controls (59.4% vs. 26.5%, p < 0.001), as well as family history of clinically established LDH (45.0% vs. 12.4%, p < 0.001). Epiphyseal ring separation was identified in 102 (29.2%) herniated discs in 91 (36.4%) JDH patients, while occurring in only 5 (1.4%) control participants (p < 0.001). Overall, severe disc degeneration was not a prominent finding in JDH patients. In conclusion, epiphyseal ring separation was a common magnetic resonance feature in JDH. Findings suggest a genetically mediated developmental model of JDH, rather than a model of premature disc degeneration.

Size Matters: Which Adolescent Patients Are Most Likely to Require Surgical Decompression for Lumbar Disk Herniations?

BACKGROUND

Lumbar herniated nucleus pulposis (HNP) occurs infrequently in the pediatric/adolescent population. A minority of patients with radicular symptoms fail to improve with conservative management and require discectomy. The authors hypothesize that children who ultimately require surgical intervention have an underlying lumbar stenosis predisposing them to continued symptoms.

METHODS

Pediatric patients with a lumbar HNP on advanced imaging were retrospectively identified at a tertiary pediatric orthopaedic institution. Patients with spondylolisthesis, fractures, previous spine surgery, or structural thoracolumbar scoliosis were excluded. On sagittal magnetic resonance imagings, measurements were taken of the L4 and L5 vertebral body diameters (VBD) and canal diameters (CD) by 2 independent reviewers. Statistical analysis was performed using 2 sample T tests followed by logistic regression analysis. This was utilized to identify significant associations between CD and need for surgical decompression.

RESULTS

A total of 76 patients (37 males/39 females) were identified with a lumbar HNP from 2001 to 2016. Eleven patients underwent discectomy. Sixty-five patients were managed conservatively. Age at magnetic resonance imaging was not different between groups (15.1±1.7 vs. 14.9±2.2 y, P=0.82). VBD at L4 and L5 were not different between groups (P=0.2 and 0.36, respectively). The reviewers had fair to good (0.584-0.854) interrater reliability correlation coefficients. CD was decreased in the surgically treated cohort at L4 (11.6±1.6 vs. 14.2±2.1 mm, P=0.0002) and at L5 (10.1±1.3 vs. 14.2±2.2 mm, P<0.00001). The ratio of CD:VBD was lower in the surgically treated group at L4 (0.36±0.06 vs. 0.46±0.08, P=0.0002) and L5 (0.31±0.68 vs. 0.45±0.08, P<0.00001). Patients with a L4 CD<12.6 mm were 18.8× more likely to require surgical decompression. 100% of patients with a L5 CD<12.36 mm ultimately underwent surgical decompression.

CONCLUSIONS

Adolescent patients with congenital lumbar stenosis that develop a lumbar HNP are significantly more likely to require surgical decompression to relieve persistent radicular symptoms. A L4 CD<12.6 mm and a L5 CD<12.36 mm were highly correlated with the need for decompression.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III-prognostic study.

Clinical efficacy of percutaneous transforaminal endoscopic discectomy in treating adolescent lumbar disc herniation

Ten years ago, endoscopic techniques began to prevail in clinical treatment of lumbar disc herniation (LDH), but to date, few studies have reported the clinical efficacy of percutaneous transforaminal endoscopic discectomy (PTED) in treating adolescent LDH. This study aimed to evaluate the surgical outcomes of PTED in treating adolescent patients with LDH.Between June 2012 and June 2016, retrospective analysis of 43 adolescent patients diagnosed with single-segment LDH at spine surgery at the Second Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University. The patients' lower limb pain was evaluated using visual analogue scale (VAS) scores and the Oswestry Disability Index (ODI). The VAS is the most commonly-used quantitative method for assessing the degree of pain in clinical practice. The measurement method is to draw a 10 cm horizontal line on a piece of paper, 1 end of which is 0, indicating no pain, while the other end is 10, which means severe pain, and the middle part indicates different degrees of pain. The clinician then asks the patient to make a mark on the line to indicate the degree of pain based on how he or she feels. The ODI is the most widely-used assessment method internationally for lumbar or leg pain at present. The ODI questionnaire is composed of 10 questions, covering pain intensity, independent living, carrying, walking, sitting, standing, sleep, travel, sex, and social life. Every category comprises 6 options, with the highest score for each question being 5 points. Thus the 1st option is worth 0 points, the last option scores 5 points, and higher scores represent more serious dysfunction. Patient satisfaction was evaluated using the modified MacNab score. Clinical outcomes were measured preoperatively, and at 3 days, 6 months, and 12 months postoperatively.All 43 patients were followed up for 12 to 24 months. The average follow-up time was 18.33 months. The VAS scores and ODI scores at 3 days, 6 months, and 12 months postoperatively were significantly lower than before surgery. The difference was statistically significant (P < .001). The differences in VAS scores and ODI scores at 3 days, 6 months, and 12 months after surgery were also statistically significant (P < .001). According to the modified MacNab criteria, 26 cases were rated excellent, 14 cases were good, and 3 cases were acceptable at the final follow-up, and 93.02% of these patients had excellent outcomes.The PTED is an effective and safe surgical method for the treatment of adolescent patients with LDH, but high-quality randomized controlled trials are still required to further verify these findings.

Factors Associated With Longer Postoperative Outpatient Follow-up Duration in Patients With Single Lumbar Disc Herniation: A Noncomplicated Patient Cohort Study

Objective

Many reports have described the outcomes of surgical treatment of lumbar disc herniation (LDH). However, few reports have investigated the treatment period after lumbar disc surgery. If no complications occur, how long should an ordinary patient be treated? Which factors are associated with the outpatient follow-up period (OFP)? To answer these questions, we reviewed the medical records of patients who underwent lumbar disc surgery, calculated their average OFP, and sought to identify factors associated with the OFP.

Methods

Patients who underwent surgical treatment of single-level LDH from July 2005 to December 2011 were enrolled in this study. Patients who had no pain or required no further treatment did not receive follow-up. Patients’ medical records were reviewed retrospectively. Cases of recurrent LDH, postoperative infections, instrumentation, cauda equina syndrome, postoperative hematoma, trauma-associated herniation, and spondylolisthesis were excluded. We reviewed the postoperative hospitalization period (PHP) and the OFP. Sex, age, operation year, surgical approach, the operating surgeon, disc level, and insurance type were investigated as associated factors.

Results

In total, 611 patients underwent surgical treatment for single-level LDH by 4 surgeons. Their average age was 44.3 ± 15.1 years. There were 377 male and 234 female patients. The average PHP was 4.4 ± 3.2 days, the average OFP was 112.3 ± 198.6 days, and the 95% confidence interval for the OFP among the enrolled patients was between 96.5 and 128.1 days.

Conclusion

Although this is a single-institute report, most LDH patients showed an OFP of less than 4 months after surgical treatment. In this study, sex, age, and insurance type seemed to be related with the OFP.

Predictive outcome factors in the young patient treated with lumbar disc herniation surgery

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to evaluate predictive factors for outcome after lumbar disc herniation surgery in young patients.

METHODS

In the national Swedish spine register, the authors identified 180 patients age 20 years or younger, in whom preoperative and 1-year postoperative data were available. The cohort was treated with primary open surgery due to lumbar disc herniation between 2000 and 2010. Before and 1 year after surgery, the patients graded their back and leg pain on a visual analog scale, quality of life by the 36-Item Short-Form Health Survey and EuroQol–5 Dimensions, and disability by the Oswestry Disability Index. Subjective satisfaction rate was registered on a Likert scale (satisfied, undecided, or dissatisfied). The authors evaluated if age, sex, preoperative level of leg and back pain, duration of leg pain, pain distribution, quality of life, mental status, and/or disability were associated with the outcome. The primary end point variable was the grade of patient satisfaction.

RESULTS

Lumbar disc herniation surgery in young patients normalizes quality of life according to the 36-Item Short-Form Health Survey, and only 4.5% of the patients were unsatisfied with the surgical outcome. Predictive factors for inferior postoperative patient-reported outcome measures (PROM) scores were severe preoperative leg or back pain, low preoperative mental health, and pronounced preoperative disability, but only low preoperative mental health was associated with inferiority in the subjective grade of satisfaction. No associations were found between preoperative duration of leg pain, distribution of pain, or health-related quality of life and the postoperative PROM scores or the subjective grade of satisfaction.

CONCLUSIONS

Lumbar disc herniation surgery in young patients generally yields a satisfactory outcome. Severe preoperative pain, low mental health, and severe disability increase the risk of reaching low postoperative PROM scores, but are only of relevance clinically (low subjective satisfaction) for patients with low preoperative mental health.

Adolescent prolapsed lumbar intervertebral disc: Management strategies and outcome

Objective:

Lumbar intervertebral disc herniation (LIVDH) is rare in children and adolescents when compared to adults. In literature, children generally constitute around 0.5–3% of surgically treated LIVDH. Though much rarer, they are less likely to respond to conservative treatment than adults. In this study, we analyze our experience in the management of adolescent LIVDH (ALIVDH) (age group 12–18 years) including the demographic, clinico-radiological features; surgical management strategies and outcome.

Materials and Methods:

This retrospective analysis constituted all patients between 12 and 18 years, who underwent surgery for LIVDH at our institute over a period of 15 years from January 1999 to June 2014. The records of these patients were retrieved, and demographic features, clinical picture, radiological features, operative findings, and postoperative events were evaluated. Follow-up data were obtained either through direct clinical evaluation or mailed self-report questionnaire and telephone conversations. The long-term outcome was analyzed by using standardized and condition specific outcome scales in addition to routine clinical follow-up evaluation. The long-term outcome was analyzed by using the short form-36 (SF-36).

Results:

There were a total of 32 patients (26 males, eight females) with an average age of 15.64 years. Trauma was a significant etiological factor 57.14% (n = 16/28). Vertebral anomalies were present in 35.7% (n = 10/28) cases. Majority had a neurological deficit at presentation (n = 20/28). The most commonly involved level was the L4–L5 level (n = 18/128) in this series. Multiple level disc degeneration was present in eight patients (28.6%). Immediate postoperative relief was achieved in all but one patient. At long-term follow-up twenty patients were pain-free (71.4%). At follow-up, the physical functioning scale of SF-36 was significantly lower in patients with gross motor deficit prior to surgery.

Conclusions:

Early diagnosis and adequate management contribute to a good outcome. In our study, trauma and presence of preexisting vertebral anomalies were significant factors in the etiogenesis of ALIVDH.

Ring apophysis fracture in pediatric lumbar disc herniation: a common entity

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Lumbar disc herniation (LDH) can be associated with ring apophysis fracture (RAF), which is found in 6% of adult cases. However, the incidence and management of RAF in pediatric LDH is not well documented. The purpose of this study is to determine the prevalence of RAF in pediatric LDH, identify risk factors and explore the influence of RAF on the surgical management and outcome of LDH patients.

METHODS

Hospital records and images were retrospectively reviewed for all pediatric patients (<18 years old) who underwent CT scanning for LDH at BC Children's Hospital from 1985 to 2010.

RESULTS

Forty-two patients met the study inclusion criteria. RAF was present in 38% of the pediatric patients with LDH. There was a significant correlation with gender (p = 0.021; 55% of the males had RAF, and 20% of the females) and association with central herniations (p = 0.003). At the last follow-up, 58% of the patients with RAF were symptom free, compared with 68% of the patients with no RAF.

CONCLUSION

RAF is more frequently associated with LDH in children than in adults. Gender and central disc herniation are associated with RAF. Given the frequency of RAF, to properly identify these fractures and anticipate their treatment, preoperative CT would be necessary.

A review of current treatment of lumbar posterior ring apophysis fracture with lumbar disc herniation

PURPOSE

Lumbar posterior ring apophysis fracture (PRAF) is an uncommon disorder frequently accompanied by lumbar disc herniation (LDH). Over the years, there have constantly been published studies concerning this disorder. Due to its rarity, there is lack of an agreed treatment strategy, and lots of different opinions exist, including the choice of decompressive modalities, whether removal of apophyseal fragments or/and disc material, and the necessity of additional spinal fusion. The purpose of this review is to provide a collective opinion on the treatment of PRAF with LDH.

METHODS

A MEDLINE search in the English language literature was performed from 1980 to 2012. To be included in the study, it was strictly necessary for each clinical article to provide information about the description of apophyseal fracture such as location, treatment methods and clinical outcome. The studies were mainly analyzed for general features, the related classifications and treatments.

RESULTS

The literature searching yielded 19 articles reporting 366 patients experiencing 380 sites of fractures. All of them were case reports or case series. The classification systems of PRAF were various based on the morphology, mobilization, size or localization, and relationship between disc and fragment. The most used surgical options were posterior discectomy simultaneous excision of apophyseal fragments without spine fusion. Surgical treatment for PRAF with LDH had equally excellent clinical outcome compared with LDH alone.

CONCLUSIONS

The diverse features of apophyseal fracture lead to various modalities of classifications and operation options. Prior to operation, the surgeons should carefully make a plan to consider decompressive scope, removal of apophyseal fragment or/and disc and fusion or not. Because of methodological shortcomings in publications, it is not possible to definitively conclude what treatment modality is the best for the treatment of PRAF. More high-quality clinical studies are needed to draw more confirmable conclusions.

Neurogenic claudication associated with posterior vertebral rim fractures in children

OBJECT

Outside of the patient population with achondroplasia, neurogenic claudication is rare in the pediatric age group. Neurogenic claudication associated with posterior vertebral rim fracture is even more uncommon but nonetheless causes pain and disability in affected children and adolescents. The purpose of this study was to describe the surgical results of 3 adolescents presenting with neurogenic claudication and posterior vertebral rim fracture when treated with laminectomy alone.

METHODS

The medical and operative records of the 3 pediatric patients were retrospectively reviewed. Presenting signs and symptoms and CT findings, such as the interpedicular distances between T-12 and L-5, were obtained. Perioperative results were assessed, including operative time, blood loss, length of hospital stay, and complications. Findings at latest follow-up were also recorded, including a patient satisfaction survey.

RESULTS

The 3 patients (1 girl and 2 boys) had a mean age of 14.7 years (range 14-15 years) and underwent follow-up for a mean of 11.3 months (range 5-18 months). Notable preoperative signs and symptoms included back pain (all patients), leg pain (all patients), leg numbness (1 patient), and leg weakness (1 patient). No patient presented with bowel and/or bladder dysfunction. The mean blood loss during laminectomy was 123 ml (range 20-300 ml), and the mean length of hospital stay was 4.3 days (range 3-6 days). On average, decompression was performed at 2.2 levels (range 2-2.5 levels). All 3 patients reported at most recent follow-up that they were "satisfied" with the surgery. There was 1 complication of instability from an iatrogenic pars fracture, which required reoperation and posterior instrumented fusion.

CONCLUSIONS

To the best of the authors' knowledge, this report represents the first surgical series of pediatric neurogenic claudication associated with posterior vertebral rim fractures. Pediatric neurosurgeons may infrequently encounter neurogenic claudication associated with a posterior vertebral rim fracture in children. To treat children with neurogenic claudication associated with posterior vertebral rim fractures, a simple laminectomy may be a safe and efficacious alternative to discectomy and removal of fracture fragments.

Pediatric disk herniation

Pediatric disk herniation is a rare condition that should be considered in the differential diagnosis of the child with back pain or radiating leg pain. Because pediatric disk herniation is relatively uncommon, there is typically a delay in diagnosis compared with time to diagnosis of adult disk herniation. Pediatric disk herniations are often recalcitrant to nonsurgical care, but such measures should be attempted in patients who present with isolated pain symptoms and have a normal neurologic examination. Twenty-eight percent of adolescent disk herniations involve apophyseal fractures; this presentation has a higher rate of surgical intervention than do herniations without fracture. Surgical management of pediatric disk herniation involves laminotomy and fragment excision. Short-term data demonstrate excellent pain relief, with 1% of children requiring repeat surgery for lumbar disk pathology in the first year. Long-term data suggest that 20% to 30% of patients will require additional surgery later in life.

Percutaneous intradiscal aspiration of a lumbar vacuum disc herniation: a case report

We report a case of an 83-year-old gentleman presenting with acute low back pain and radicular left lower extremity pain after golfing. A magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the lumbar spine revealed a low-signal-density lesion compressing the L5 nerve. A computed tomography scan was then ordered, confirming an extra-foraminal disc protrusion at the L5-S1 level, containing a focus of gas that was compressing the left L5 nerve root and communicating with the vacuum disc at L5-S1. After a failed left L5 transforaminal epidural steroid injection, the patient was brought back for a percutaneous intradiscal aspiration of the vacuum disc gas. This resulted in immediate relief for the patient. A follow-up MRI performed 2 months after the procedure found an approximate 25% reduction in the size of the vacuum disc herniation. Six months after the procedure, the patient remains free of radicular pain. This case report suggests that a percutaneous aspiration of gas from a vacuum disc herniation may assist in the treatment of radicular pain.

A review of current treatment for lumbar disc herniation in children and adolescents

Lumbar disc herniation (LDH) is a common disorder among adults with degenerated lumbar intervertebral discs. However, its occurrence in childhood and adolescence is much less frequent mostly because children and adolescents tend to have a healthier lumbar spine as compared with adults. This difference indicates that children and adolescents are far from being just little adults. Over the years, there have constantly been published studies concerning this entity where the findings suggested that pediatric LDH is, in many ways, different from that in adults. To date, the prevalence, the etiological and the diagnostic features of pediatric LDH have been fully described in the literature whereas the characteristics regarding to the treatment is yet to be reviewed in details. The aim of the present review is to provide a collective opinion on the treatment of pediatric LDH as well as its outcome. It reviewed the relevant information available in the literature and compared the results among and within various treatments. It was found that pediatric patients responded less favorably to conservative treatment as compared with adults. In addition, the outcome of surgery remained to be satisfactory for at least 10 years after the initial operation, even though it appeared to deteriorate slightly. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first literature review focusing on the treatment of pediatric LDH.

Lumbar microdiscectomy in pediatric patients: a large single-institution series

Object

Lumbar disc herniation is a rare but significant cause of pain and disability in the pediatric population. Lumbar microdiscectomy, although routinely performed in adults, has not been described in the pediatric population. The objective of this study was to determine the surgical results of lumbar microdiscectomy in the pediatric population by analyzing the experiences at Children's Hospital Boston over the past decade.

Methods

A series of 87 consecutive cases of lumbar microdiscectomy performed by the senior author (M.R.P.) from 1999 to 2008 were reviewed. Presenting symptoms, physical examination findings, and preoperative MR imaging findings were obtained from medical records. Immediate operative results were assessed including operative duration, blood loss, length of stay, and complications, along with long-term outcome and need for repeat surgery.

Results

This series represents the first surgical series of pediatric microdiscectomies. The mean patient age was 16.6 years (range 12–18 years) and 60% were female. The preoperative physical examination results were notable for motor deficits in 26% of patients, sensory changes in 41%, loss of deep tendon reflex in 22%, and a positive straight leg raise in 95%. Conservative management was the first line of treatment in all patients and the mean duration of symptoms until surgical treatment was 12.2 months. The mean operative time was 110 minutes and the mean postoperative length of stay was 1.3 days. Complications were rare: postoperative infection occurred in 1%, postoperative CSF leak in 1%, and new postoperative neurological deficits in 1%. Only 6% of patients needed repeat lumbar surgery and 1 patient ultimately required lumbar fusion.

Conclusions

The treatment of pediatric lumbar disc herniation with microdiscectomy is a safe procedure with low operative complications. Nuances of the presentation, treatment options, and surgery in the pediatric population are discussed.

Surgical excision of the lumbar disc herniation in elementary school age

STUDY DESIGN

A retrospective study.

PURPOSE

To assess the radiological, clinical features and surgical outcomes of six patients of elementary school age with lumbar disc herniation (LDH).

OVERVIEW OF LITERATURE

LDH is common in people in their fourth and fifth decades. However, the condition is extremely rare in children of elementary school age. Moreover, the clinical symptoms and treatments are different from those of adults.

METHODS

We reviewed a series of 6 patients under the age of 12 years, who underwent surgery for LDH at our institution between 1992-2002. Initially, all patients were treated conservatively. The indications for surgery were failure of conservative treatment for 3 months, intractable pain and/or progressive neurological impairment.

RESULTS

The surgical findings revealed a protruding disc in five cases and a ruptured disc in one. In addition, separation of the vertebral ring apophysis was observed in 3 cases. The symptoms had disappeared completely at the last follow-up. At the last follow-up, the Japanese Orthopaedic Association score was 10 points in 5 cases and 9 points in 1, and the Kirkaldy-Willis criteria was excellent in all patients. No intervertebral disc space narrowing was observed in any patient at last follow up. In addition, there were no degenerative changes in the vertebral endplate and facet joint.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with symptoms that persist for more than 3 months or those with a progressive neurological deficit must be considered for surgical discectomy.

Pathophysiology of degenerative disc disease

The intervertebral disc is characterized by a tension-resisting annulus fibrosus and a compression-resisting nucleus pulposus composed largely of proteoglycan. The most important function of the annulus and nucleus is to provide mechanical stability to the disc. Degenerative disc disease in the lumbar spine is a serious health problem. Although the three joint complex model of the degenerative process is widely accepted, the etiological basis of this degeneration is poorly understood. With the recent progress in molecular biology and modern biological techniques, there has been dramatic improvement in the understanding of aging and degenerative changes of the disc. Knowledge of the pathophysiology of the disc degeneration can help in the appropriate choice of treatment and to develop tissue engineering for biological restoration of degenerated discs.

Nucleus replacement technologies

Nucleus replacement offers a less invasive alternative to traditional fusion or total disc replacement techniques in the treatment of symptomatic lumbar degenerative disc disease (DDD). The authors discuss the classification of nucleus replacement devices as well as their potential indications. The authors review the history and evolution of nucleus replacement devices emphasizing several that are actively in US Investigational Device Exemption pilot feasibility trials. Nucleus replacement devices can be functionally categorized as elastomeric and mechanical. A classification scheme is discussed. Nucleus replacement remains investigational, but early clinical results have been encouraging. Further clinical investigation with well-designed prospective, randomized pivotal trials is needed to determine the efficacy of nucleus replacement in the treatment of lumbar DDD, as well as its ideal indications.

Adolescent back pain

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Adolescent back pain poses a distinct diagnostic challenge to the physician due to skeletal maturity and activity levels seen in adolescent patients. The purpose of this review is to focus on the musculoskeletal causes of adolescent back pain and to review the current literature on the etiology, diagnosis and treatment options.

RECENT FINDINGS

Etiologies of adolescent back pain include a vast differential diagnosis, including traumatic, morphologic, infectious and neoplastic etiologies. Recent literature has focused on spondylolysis, back pack-related pain, disc herniations and back pain in adolescent athletes. Recent anatomic studies have demonstrated a distinct morphology to spondylytic spines attributing the etiology of spondylolysis in part to morphologic predispositions.

SUMMARY

Increasing numbers of active adolescents will lead to increasing complaints of back pain seen by the primary care physician. Recent epidemiological studies have suggested a correlation between adolescent back pain and adult-onset back pain. A systematic approach to the adolescent with back pain is for arriving at a clear diagnosis and guiding appropriate treatments.