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Daśko M, Demkowicz S, Biernacki K, Ciupak O, Kozak W, Masłyk M, Rachon J. Recent progress in the development of steroid sulphatase inhibitors - examples of the novel and most promising compounds from the last decade. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2020; 35:1163-1184. [PMID: 32363947 PMCID: PMC7241464 DOI: 10.1080/14756366.2020.1758692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2020] [Revised: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this review article is to provide an overview of recent achievements in the synthesis of novel steroid sulphatase (STS) inhibitors. STS is a crucial enzyme in the biosynthesis of active hormones (including oestrogens and androgens) and, therefore, represents an extremely attractive molecular target for the development of hormone-dependent cancer therapies. The inhibition of STS may effectively reduce the availability of active hormones for cancer cells, causing a positive therapeutic effect. Herein, we report examples of novel STS inhibitors based on steroidal and nonsteroidal cores that contain various functional groups (e.g. sulphamate and phosphorus moieties) and halogen atoms, which may potentially be used in therapies for hormone-dependent cancers. The presented work also includes examples of multitargeting agents with STS inhibitory activities. Furthermore, the fundamental discoveries in the development of the most promising drug candidates exhibiting STS inhibitory activities are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mateusz Daśko
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Sebastian Demkowicz
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Karol Biernacki
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Olga Ciupak
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Witold Kozak
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Maciej Masłyk
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Environment Sciences, The John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
| | - Janusz Rachon
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland
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Sun MR, Kang YY, Duan YT, Liu HM. Concise synthesis of 2-methoxyestradiol through C(sp 2)-H methoxylation. Steroids 2020; 162:108697. [PMID: 32682814 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2020.108697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Revised: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
An efficient and concise synthesis of 2-methoxyestradiol (4) from 17β-estradiol (1) has been achieved in three synthetic steps with a 63.3% overall yield. The key step was the palladium-catalyzed direct C(sp2)-H methoxylation of 2-aryloxypyridines. Using 2-pyridyloxyl as the directing group, Pd(OAc)2 as the catalyst, PhI(OAc)2 as the oxidant and methanol as both the methoxylation reagent and solvent, the methoxy group could be handily installed at the 2-position of 3-(2-pyridoxy) estradiol (2). Subsequently, the pyridyl group could be easily removed by nucleophilic substitution with a methoxy anion after being oxidized to a pyridyl N-oxide by m-chloroperoxybenzoic acid, delivering the target product 2-methoxyestradiol (4) in quantitative yield. In contrast, when the pyridyl directing group was removed by the TfOMe-NaOMe/MeOH system as reported in the literature, TfOMe inevitably methylated the 17-OH of 2-methoxy-3-(2-pyridoxy) estradiol (3). In effect, we have fortuitously found a new method to cleave the pyridyl directing group, which is highly suitable for substrates bearing hydroxy groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mo-Ran Sun
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of New Drug Research and Safety Evaluation, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Ying-Ying Kang
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of New Drug Research and Safety Evaluation, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Yong-Tao Duan
- Henan Provincial Key Laboratory of Children's Genetics and Metabolic Diseases, Children's Hospital Affiliated to Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou Children's Hospital, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450018, China
| | - Hong-Min Liu
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of New Drug Research and Safety Evaluation, Zhengzhou 450001, China.
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Ba MY, Xia LW, Li HL, Wang YG, Chu YN, Zhao Q, Hu CP, He XT, Li TX, Liang KY, Zhang YH, Yang L, Xie WH, Yang H, Sun MR. Concise synthesis of 2-methoxyestradiol from 17β-estradiol through the C(sp 2)-H hydroxylation. Steroids 2019; 146:99-103. [PMID: 30951759 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2019.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2019] [Revised: 03/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/28/2019] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
A four-step route for the synthesis of 2-methoxyestradiol (5) starting from 17β-estradiol (1) has been achieved with a 51% overall yield. The key step was the ruthenium-catalyzed ortho-C(sp2)-H bond hydroxylation of aryl carbamates. Using dimethyl carbamate as the directing group, [RuCl2(p-cymene)]2 as the catalyst, PhI(OAc)2 as the oxidant and trifluoroacetate/trifluoroacetic anhydride (1:1) as the co-solvent, the hydroxyl group could be singly installed at the 2-position of 3-dimethylcarbamoyloxyestradiol (2) with 65% yield. Subsequent methylation of hydroxy and removal of dimethyl carbamate afforded 2-methoxyestradiol (5).
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng-Yu Ba
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of New of New Drug Research and Safety Evaluation, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Li-Wen Xia
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of New of New Drug Research and Safety Evaluation, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Hong-Liang Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of New of New Drug Research and Safety Evaluation, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Ying-Ge Wang
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of New of New Drug Research and Safety Evaluation, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Ya-Nan Chu
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of New of New Drug Research and Safety Evaluation, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Qing Zhao
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of New of New Drug Research and Safety Evaluation, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Chao-Ping Hu
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of New of New Drug Research and Safety Evaluation, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Xiao-Tong He
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of New of New Drug Research and Safety Evaluation, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Tian-Xiao Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of New of New Drug Research and Safety Evaluation, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Kai-Yue Liang
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of New of New Drug Research and Safety Evaluation, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Ya-Han Zhang
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Liu Yang
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Wen-Hao Xie
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Hua Yang
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of New of New Drug Research and Safety Evaluation, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Mo-Ran Sun
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China; Collaborative Innovation Center of New of New Drug Research and Safety Evaluation, Zhengzhou 450001, China.
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Potter BVL. SULFATION PATHWAYS: Steroid sulphatase inhibition via aryl sulphamates: clinical progress, mechanism and future prospects. J Mol Endocrinol 2018; 61:T233-T252. [PMID: 29618488 DOI: 10.1530/jme-18-0045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2018] [Accepted: 04/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Steroid sulphatase is an emerging drug target for the endocrine therapy of hormone-dependent diseases, catalysing oestrogen sulphate hydrolysis to oestrogen. Drug discovery, developing the core aryl O-sulphamate pharmacophore, has led to steroidal and non-steroidal drugs entering numerous clinical trials, with promising results in oncology and women's health. Steroidal oestrogen sulphamate derivatives were the first irreversible active-site-directed inhibitors and one was developed clinically as an oral oestradiol pro-drug and for endometriosis applications. This review summarizes work leading to the therapeutic concept of sulphatase inhibition, clinical trials executed to date and new insights into the mechanism of inhibition of steroid sulphatase. To date, the non-steroidal sulphatase inhibitor Irosustat has been evaluated clinically in breast cancer, alone and in combination, in endometrial cancer and in prostate cancer. The versatile core pharmacophore both imbues attractive pharmaceutical properties and functions via three distinct mechanisms of action, as a pro-drug, an enzyme active-site-modifying motif, likely through direct sulphamoyl group transfer, and as a structural component augmenting activity, for example by enhancing interactions at the colchicine binding site of tubulin. Preliminary new structural data on the Pseudomonas aeruginosa arylsulphatase enzyme suggest two possible sulphamate-based adducts with the active site formylglycine as candidates for the inhibition end product via sulphamoyl or sulphonylamine transfer, and a speculative choice is suggested. The clinical status of sulphatase inhibition is surveyed and how it might develop in the future. Also discussed are dual-targeting approaches, development of 2-substituted steroidal sulphamates and non-steroidal derivatives as multi-targeting agents for hormone-independent tumours, with other emerging directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry V L Potter
- Medicinal Chemistry & Drug DiscoveryDepartment of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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Abstract
Hydrolytic enzymes are a large class of biological catalysts that play a vital role in a plethora of critical biochemical processes required to maintain human health. However, the expression and/or activity of these important enzymes can change in many different diseases and therefore represent exciting targets for the development of positron emission tomography (PET) and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) radiotracers. This review focuses on recently reported radiolabeled substrates, reversible inhibitors, and irreversible inhibitors investigated as PET and SPECT tracers for imaging hydrolytic enzymes. By learning from the most successful examples of tracer development for hydrolytic enzymes, it appears that an early focus on careful enzyme kinetics and cell-based studies are key factors for identifying potentially useful new molecular imaging agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian P Rempel
- 1 Department of Science, Augustana Faculty, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Eric W Price
- 2 Department of Chemistry, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Christopher P Phenix
- 2 Department of Chemistry, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada.,3 Biomarker Discovery, Thunder Bay Regional Health Research Institute, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada
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Huber J, Wölfling J, Schneider G, Ocsovszki I, Varga M, Zupkó I, Mernyák E. Synthesis of antiproliferative 13α-d-homoestrones via Lewis acid-promoted one-pot Prins-Ritter reactions of d-secosteroidal δ-alkenyl-aldehydes. Steroids 2015. [PMID: 26210211 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2015.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A simple one-pot Prins-Ritter route was developed for the synthesis of 16-acylamino-17a-hydroxy-d-homoestrone 3-benzyl and 3-methyl ethers in the 13α-estrone series. The d-secosteroidal δ-alkenyl-aldehydes were allowed to react with different nitriles in the presence of BF3·OEt2 as a Lewis acid catalyst. Prins cyclizations afforded 17a-hydroxy-16-carbenium ions, which underwent Ritter reactions with nitriles, leading to 16α- or 16β-acylamino derivatives. A side-product in which a dihydro-1,3-oxazine was bridged to six-membered ring D at positions 16α,17aα was formed in each reaction. The antiproliferative properties of the novel 13α-d-homosteroids were determined on a panel of human adherent cancer cell lines (HeLa, MCF-7, T47D, MDA-MB-231, MDA-MB-361, A2780 and A431) by means of MTT (3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assays. Some compounds proved to be more effective (with submicromolar IC50 values) than the reference agent cisplatin. One of the most potent compounds substantially increased the rate of tubulin polymerization. Cell cycle analyses by flow cytometry indicated a concentration-dependent accumulation of the G2/M cell population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judit Huber
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 8., H-6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - János Wölfling
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 8., H-6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Gyula Schneider
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 8., H-6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Imre Ocsovszki
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 9., H-6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Mónika Varga
- Cereal Research Non-Profit Ltd., P.O. Box 391, H-6701 Szeged, Hungary
| | - István Zupkó
- Department of Pharmacodynamics and Biopharmacy, University of Szeged, Eötvös u. 6., H-6720 Szeged, Hungary.
| | - Erzsébet Mernyák
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 8., H-6720 Szeged, Hungary.
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Mernyák E, Szabó J, Bacsa I, Huber J, Schneider G, Minorics R, Bózsity N, Zupkó I, Varga M, Bikádi Z, Hazai E, Wölfling J. Syntheses and antiproliferative effects of D-homo- and D-secoestrones. Steroids 2014; 87:128-36. [PMID: 24928727 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2014.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2014] [Revised: 05/13/2014] [Accepted: 05/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Substituted and/or heterocyclic d-homoestrone derivatives were synthetized via the intramolecular cyclization of a δ-alkenyl-d-secoaldehyde, -d-secoalcohol or -d-secocarboxylic acid of estrone 3-benzyl ether. The d-secoalcohol was modified at three sites in the molecule. The in vitro antiproliferative activities of the new d-homo- and d-secoestrone derivatives were determined on HeLa, MCF-7, A431 and A2780 cells through use of MTT assay. d-Homoalcohols 3 and 5 displayed cell line-selective cytostatic effects against ovarian and cervical cell lines, respectively. Two d-secoestrones (6 and 12c) proved to be effective, with IC50 values comparable with those of the reference agent cisplatin. A selected compound (6) was tested by tubulin polymerization assay and its cancer specificity was additionally determined by using noncancerous human fibroblast cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erzsébet Mernyák
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 8, H-6720 Szeged, Hungary.
| | - Johanna Szabó
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 8, H-6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Ildikó Bacsa
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 8, H-6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Judit Huber
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 8, H-6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Gyula Schneider
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 8, H-6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Renáta Minorics
- Department of Pharmacodynamics and Biopharmacy, University of Szeged, Eötvös u. 6, H-6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Noémi Bózsity
- Department of Pharmacodynamics and Biopharmacy, University of Szeged, Eötvös u. 6, H-6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - István Zupkó
- Department of Pharmacodynamics and Biopharmacy, University of Szeged, Eötvös u. 6, H-6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Mónika Varga
- Cereal Research Non-Profit LTD, P.O. Box 391, H-6701 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Zsolt Bikádi
- Virtua Drug Ltd, Csalogány u. 4C, H-1015 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Eszter Hazai
- Virtua Drug Ltd, Csalogány u. 4C, H-1015 Budapest, Hungary
| | - János Wölfling
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 8, H-6720 Szeged, Hungary
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Gupta A, Kumar BS, Negi AS. Current status on development of steroids as anticancer agents. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2013; 137:242-70. [PMID: 23727548 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2012] [Revised: 04/25/2013] [Accepted: 05/19/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Steroids are important biodynamic agents. Their affinities for various nuclear receptors have been an interesting feature to utilize them for drug development particularly for receptor mediated diseases. Steroid biochemistry and its crucial role in human physiology, has attained importance among the researchers. Recent years have seen an extensive focus on modification of steroids. The rational modifications of perhydrocyclopentanophenanthrene nucleus of steroids have yielded several important anticancer lead molecules. Exemestane, SR16157, fulvestrant and 2-methoxyestradiol are some of the successful leads emerged on steroidal pharmacophores. The present review is an update on some of the steroidal leads obtained during past 25 years. Various steroid based enzyme inhibitors, antiestrogens, cytotoxic conjugates and steroidal cytotoxic molecules of natural as well as synthetic origin have been highlighted. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled "Synthesis and biological testing of steroid derivatives as inhibitors".
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Affiliation(s)
- Atul Gupta
- Medicinal Chemistry Department, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CSIR-CIMAP), Kukrail Picnic Spot Road, Lucknow 226015, U.P., India
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Secky L, Svoboda M, Klameth L, Bajna E, Hamilton G, Zeillinger R, Jäger W, Thalhammer T. The sulfatase pathway for estrogen formation: targets for the treatment and diagnosis of hormone-associated tumors. JOURNAL OF DRUG DELIVERY 2013; 2013:957605. [PMID: 23476785 PMCID: PMC3586502 DOI: 10.1155/2013/957605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2012] [Accepted: 12/17/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The extragonadal synthesis of biological active steroid hormones from their inactive precursors in target tissues is named "intracrinology." Of particular importance for the progression of estrogen-dependent cancers is the in situ formation of the biological most active estrogen, 17beta-estradiol (E2). In cancer cells, conversion of inactive steroid hormone precursors to E2 is accomplished from inactive, sulfated estrogens in the "sulfatase pathway" and from androgens in the "aromatase pathway." Here, we provide an overview about expression and function of enzymes of the "sulfatase pathway," particularly steroid sulfatase (STS) that activates estrogens and estrogen sulfotransferase (SULT1E1) that converts active estrone (E1) and other estrogens to their inactive sulfates. High expression of STS and low expression of SULT1E1 will increase levels of active estrogens in malignant tumor cells leading to the stimulation of cell proliferation and cancer progression. Therefore, blocking the "sulfatase pathway" by STS inhibitors may offer an attractive strategy to reduce levels of active estrogens. STS inhibitors either applied in combination with aromatase inhibitors or as novel, dual aromatase-steroid sulfatase inhibiting drugs are currently under investigation. Furthermore, STS inhibitors are also suitable as enzyme-based cancer imaging agents applied in the biomedical imaging technique positron emission tomography (PET) for cancer diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lena Secky
- Department of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Martin Svoboda
- Department of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Lukas Klameth
- Department of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, 1090 Vienna, Austria
- Ludwig Boltzmann Cluster Translational Oncology, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Erika Bajna
- Department of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Gerhard Hamilton
- Ludwig Boltzmann Cluster Translational Oncology, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Robert Zeillinger
- Ludwig Boltzmann Cluster Translational Oncology, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Walter Jäger
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Diagnostics, University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Theresia Thalhammer
- Department of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, 1090 Vienna, Austria
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