Conferring substrate specificity to DNA helicases: role of the RecQ HRDC domain

A rapid and highly sensitive immunosorbent assay to monitor helicases unwinding diverse nucleic acid structures

Helicases are crucial enzymes in DNA and RNA metabolism and function by unwinding particular nucleic acid structures. However, most convenient and high-throughput helicase assays are limited to the typical duplex DNA. Herein, we developed an immunosorbent assay to monitor the Werner syndrome (WRN) helicase unwinding a wide range of DNA structures, such as a replication fork, a bubble, Holliday junction, G-quadruplex and hairpin. This assay could sensitively detect the unwinding of DNA structures with detection limits around 0.1 nM, and accurately monitor the substrate-specificity of WRN with a comparatively less time-consuming and high throughput process. Remarkably, we have established that this new assay was compatible in evaluating helicase inhibitors and revealed that the inhibitory effect was substrate-dependent, suggesting that diverse substrate structures other than duplex structures should be considered in discovering new inhibitors. Our study provided a foundational example for using this new assay as a powerful tool to study helicase functions and discover potent inhibitors.

Recognition and unfolding of human telomeric G-quadruplex by short peptide binding identified from the HRDC domain of BLM helicase

Research in recent decades has revealed that the guanine (G)-quadruplex secondary structure in DNA modulates a variety of cellular events that are mostly related to serious diseases. Systems capable of regulating DNA G-quadruplex structures would therefore be useful for the modulation of various cellular events to produce biological effects. A high specificity for recognition of telomeric G-quadruplex has been observed for BLM helicase. We identified peptides from the HRDC domain of BLM using a molecular docking approach with various available solutions and crystal structures of human telomeres and recently created a peptide library. Herein, we tested one peptide (BLM HRDC peptide) from the library and examined its interaction with human telomeric variant-1 (HTPu-var-1) to understand the basis of G4-protein interactions. Our circular dichroism (CD) data showed that HTPu-var-1 folded into an anti-parallel G-quadruplex, and the CD intensity significantly decreased upon increasing the peptide concentration. There was a significant decrease in hypochromicity due to the formation of G-quadruplex-peptide complex at 295 nm, which indicated the unfolding of structure due to the decrease in stacking interactions. The fluorescence data showed quenching upon titrating the peptide with HTPu-var-1-G4. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay confirmed the unfolding of the G4 structure. Cell viability was significantly reduced in the presence of the BLM peptide, with IC₅₀ values of 10.71 μM and 11.83 μM after 72 and 96 hours, respectively. These results confirmed that the selected peptide has the ability to bind to human telomeric G-quadruplex and unfold it. This is the first report in which a peptide was identified from the HRDC domain of the BLM G4-binding protein for the exploration of the G4-binding motif, which suggests a novel strategy to target G4 using natural key peptide segments.

Schematic representation of (HTPu–var-1-G4) located at the 3′ end, formation of G-quadruplex, model of the G-quadruplex structure, base stacking between G-quadruplex planes, G-quadruplex structure-peptide complex and twisting of G-quadruplex planes upon peptide binding.

The toposiomerase IIIalpha-RMI1-RMI2 complex orients human Bloom's syndrome helicase for efficient disruption of D-loops

Homologous recombination (HR) is a ubiquitous and efficient process that serves the repair of severe forms of DNA damage and the generation of genetic diversity during meiosis. HR can proceed via multiple pathways with different outcomes that may aid or impair genome stability and faithful inheritance, underscoring the importance of HR quality control. Human Bloom's syndrome (BLM, RecQ family) helicase plays central roles in HR pathway selection and quality control via unexplored molecular mechanisms. Here we show that BLM's multi-domain structural architecture supports a balance between stabilization and disruption of displacement loops (D-loops), early HR intermediates that are key targets for HR regulation. We find that this balance is markedly shifted toward efficient D-loop disruption by the presence of BLM's interaction partners Topoisomerase IIIα-RMI1-RMI2, which have been shown to be involved in multiple steps of HR-based DNA repair. Our results point to a mechanism whereby BLM can differentially process D-loops and support HR control depending on cellular regulatory mechanisms.

RecQ helicases in DNA repair and cancer targets

Helicases are enzymes that use the energy derived from ATP hydrolysis to catalyze the unwinding of DNA or RNA. The RecQ family of helicases is conserved through evolution from prokaryotes to higher eukaryotes and plays important roles in various DNA repair pathways, contributing to the maintenance of genome integrity. Despite their roles as general tumor suppressors, there is now considerable interest in exploiting RecQ helicases as synthetic lethal targets for the development of new cancer therapeutics. In this review, we summarize the latest developments in the structural and mechanistic study of RecQ helicases and discuss their roles in various DNA repair pathways. Finally, we consider the potential to exploit RecQ helicases as therapeutic targets and review the recent progress towards the development of small molecules targeting RecQ helicases as cancer therapeutics.

Bloom syndrome and the underlying causes of genetic instability

Autosomal hereditary recessive diseases characterized by genetic instability are often associated with cancer predisposition. Bloom syndrome (BS), a rare genetic disorder, with <300 cases reported worldwide, combines both. Indeed, patients with Bloom's syndrome are 150 to 300 times more likely to develop cancers than normal individuals. The wide spectrum of cancers developed by BS patients suggests that early initial events occur in BS cells which may also be involved in the initiation of carcinogenesis in the general population and these may be common to several cancers. BS is caused by mutations of both copies of the BLM gene, encoding the RecQ BLM helicase. This review discusses the different aspects of BS and the different cellular functions of BLM in genome surveillance and maintenance through its major roles during DNA replication, repair, and transcription. BLM's activities are essential for the stabilization of centromeric, telomeric and ribosomal DNA sequences, and the regulation of innate immunity. One of the key objectives of this work is to establish a link between BLM functions and the main clinical phenotypes observed in BS patients, as well as to shed new light on the correlation between the genetic instability and diseases such as immunodeficiency and cancer. The different potential implications of the BLM helicase in the tumorigenic process and the use of BLM as new potential target in the field of cancer treatment are also debated.

Structural basis for guide RNA trimming by RNase D ribonuclease in Trypanosoma brucei

Infection with kinetoplastid parasites, including Trypanosoma brucei (T. brucei), Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi) and Leishmania can cause serious disease in humans. Like other kinetoplastid species, mRNAs of these disease-causing parasites must undergo posttranscriptional editing in order to be functional. mRNA editing is directed by gRNAs, a large group of small RNAs. Similar to mRNAs, gRNAs are also precisely regulated. In T. brucei, overexpression of RNase D ribonuclease (TbRND) leads to substantial reduction in the total gRNA population and subsequent inhibition of mRNA editing. However, the mechanisms regulating gRNA binding and cleavage by TbRND are not well defined. Here, we report a thorough structural study of TbRND. Besides Apo- and NMP-bound structures, we also solved one TbRND structure in complexed with single-stranded RNA. In combination with mutagenesis and in vitro cleavage assays, our structures indicated that TbRND follows the conserved two-cation-assisted mechanism in catalysis. TbRND is a unique RND member, as it contains a ZFD domain at its C-terminus. In addition to T. brucei, our studies also advanced our understanding on the potential gRNA degradation pathway in T. cruzi, Leishmania, as well for as other disease-associated parasites expressing ZFD-containing RNDs.

Structure of the helicase core of Werner helicase, a key target in microsatellite instability cancers

Loss of WRN, a DNA repair helicase, was identified as a strong vulnerability of microsatellite instable (MSI) cancers, making WRN a promising drug target. We show that ATP binding and hydrolysis are required for genome integrity and viability of MSI cancer cells. We report a 2.2-Å crystal structure of the WRN helicase core (517-1,093), comprising the two helicase subdomains and winged helix domain but not the HRDC domain or nuclease domains. The structure highlights unusual features. First, an atypical mode of nucleotide binding that results in unusual relative positioning of the two helicase subdomains. Second, an additional β-hairpin in the second helicase subdomain and an unusual helical hairpin in the Zn2+ binding domain. Modelling of the WRN helicase in complex with DNA suggests roles for these features in the binding of alternative DNA structures. NMR analysis shows a weak interaction between the HRDC domain and the helicase core, indicating a possible biological role for this association. Together, this study will facilitate the structure-based development of inhibitors against WRN helicase.

A Structural Guide to the Bloom Syndrome Complex

The Bloom syndrome complex is a DNA damage repair machine. It consists of several protein components which are functional in isolation, but interdependent in cells for the maintenance of accurate homologous recombination. Mutations to any of the genes encoding these proteins cause numerous physical and developmental markers as well as phenotypes of genome instability, infertility, and cancer predisposition. Here we review the published structural and biochemical data on each of the components of the complex: the helicase BLM, the type IA topoisomerase TOP3A, and the OB-fold-containing RMI and RPA subunits. We describe how each component contributes to function, interacts with each other, and the DNA that it manipulates/repairs.

The HRDC domain oppositely modulates the unwinding activity of E. coli RecQ helicase on duplex DNA and G-quadruplex

RecQ family helicases are highly conserved from bacteria to humans and have essential roles in maintaining genome stability. Mutations in three human RecQ helicases cause severe diseases with the main features of premature aging and cancer predisposition. Most RecQ helicases shared a conserved domain arrangement which comprises a helicase core, an RecQ C-terminal domain, and an auxiliary element helicase and RNaseD C-terminal (HRDC) domain, the functions of which are poorly understood. In this study, we systematically characterized the roles of the HRDC domain in E. coli RecQ in various DNA transactions by single-molecule FRET. We found that RecQ repetitively unwinds the 3'-partial duplex and fork DNA with a moderate processivity and periodically patrols on the ssDNA in the 5'-partial duplex by translocation. The HRDC domain significantly suppresses RecQ activities in the above transactions. In sharp contrast, the HRDC domain is essential for the deep and long-time unfolding of the G4 DNA structure by RecQ. Based on the observations that the HRDC domain dynamically switches between RecA core- and ssDNA-binding modes after RecQ association with DNA, we proposed a model to explain the modulation mechanism of the HRDC domain. Our findings not only provide new insights into the activities of RecQ on different substrates but also highlight the novel functions of the HRDC domain in DNA metabolisms.

A Toolbox for Site-Specific Labeling of RecQ Helicase With a Single Fluorophore Used in the Single-Molecule Assay

Fluorescently labeled proteins can improve the detection sensitivity and have been widely used in a variety of biological measurements. In single-molecule assays, site-specific labeling of proteins enables the visualization of molecular interactions, conformational changes in proteins, and enzymatic activity. In this study, based on a flexible linker in the Escherichia coli RecQ helicase, we established a scheme involving a combination of fluorophore labeling and sortase A ligation to allow site-specific labeling of the HRDC domain of RecQ with a single Cy5 fluorophore, without inletting extra fluorescent domain or peptide fragment. Using single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer, we visualized that Cy5-labeled HRDC could directly interact with RecA domains and could bind to both the 3′ and 5′ ends of the overhang DNA dynamically in vitro for the first time. The present work not only reveals the functional mechanism of the HRDC domain, but also provides a feasible method for site-specific labeling of a domain with a single fluorophore used in single-molecule assays.

Homology sensing via non-linear amplification of sequence-dependent pausing by RecQ helicase

RecQ helicases promote genomic stability through their unique ability to suppress illegitimate recombination and resolve recombination intermediates. These DNA structure-specific activities of RecQ helicases are mediated by the helicase-and-RNAseD like C-terminal (HRDC) domain, via unknown mechanisms. Here, employing single-molecule magnetic tweezers and rapid kinetic approaches we establish that the HRDC domain stabilizes intrinsic, sequence-dependent, pauses of the core helicase (lacking the HRDC) in a DNA geometry-dependent manner. We elucidate the core unwinding mechanism in which the unwinding rate depends on the stability of the duplex DNA leading to transient sequence-dependent pauses. We further demonstrate a non-linear amplification of these transient pauses by the controlled binding of the HRDC domain. The resulting DNA sequence- and geometry-dependent pausing may underlie a homology sensing mechanism that allows rapid disruption of unstable (illegitimate) and stabilization of stable (legitimate) DNA strand invasions, which suggests an intrinsic mechanism of recombination quality control by RecQ helicases.

Single molecule kinetics uncover roles for E. coli RecQ DNA helicase domains and interaction with SSB

Most RecQ DNA helicases share a conserved domain arrangement that mediates their activities in genomic stability. This arrangement comprises a helicase motor domain, a RecQ C-terminal (RecQ-C) region including a winged-helix (WH) domain, and a ‘Helicase and RNase D C-terminal’ (HRDC) domain. Single-molecule real-time translocation and DNA unwinding by full-length Escherichia coli RecQ and variants lacking either the HRDC or both the WH and HRDC domains was analyzed. RecQ operated under two interconvertible kinetic modes, ‘slow’ and ‘normal’, as it unwound duplex DNA and translocated on single-stranded (ss) DNA. Consistent with a crystal structure of bacterial RecQ bound to ssDNA by base stacking, abasic sites blocked RecQ unwinding. Removal of the HRDC domain eliminates the slow mode while preserving the normal mode of activity. Unexpectedly, a RecQ variant lacking both the WH and HRDC domains retains weak helicase activity. The inclusion of E. coli ssDNA-binding protein (SSB) induces a third ‘fast’ unwinding mode four times faster than the normal RecQ mode and enhances the overall helicase activity (affinity, rate, and processivity). SSB stimulation was, furthermore, observed in the RecQ deletion variants, including the variant missing the WH domain. Our results support a model in which RecQ and SSB have multiple interacting modes.

A guanine-flipping and sequestration mechanism for G-quadruplex unwinding by RecQ helicases

Homeostatic regulation of G-quadruplexes (G4s), four-stranded structures that can form in guanine-rich nucleic acids, requires G4 unwinding helicases. The mechanisms that mediate G4 unwinding remain unknown. We report the structure of a bacterial RecQ DNA helicase bound to resolved G4 DNA. Unexpectedly, a guanine base from the unwound G4 is sequestered within a guanine-specific binding pocket. Disruption of the pocket in RecQ blocks G4 unwinding, but not G4 binding or duplex DNA unwinding, indicating its essential role in structure-specific G4 resolution. A novel guanine-flipping and sequestration model that may be applicable to other G4-resolving helicases emerges from these studies.

Restriction digest screening facilitates efficient detection of site-directed mutations introduced by CRISPR in C. albicans UME6

Introduction of point mutations to a gene of interest is a powerful tool when determining protein function. CRISPR-mediated genome editing allows for more efficient transfer of a desired mutation into a wide range of model organisms. Traditionally, PCR amplification and DNA sequencing is used to determine if isolates contain the intended mutation. However, mutation efficiency is highly variable, potentially making sequencing costly and time consuming. To more efficiently screen for correct transformants, we have identified restriction enzymes sites that encode for two identical amino acids or one or two stop codons. We used CRISPR to introduce these restriction sites directly upstream of the Candida albicans UME6 Zn²⁺-binding domain, a known regulator of C. albicans filamentation. While repair templates coding for different restriction sites were not equally successful at introducing mutations, restriction digest screening enabled us to rapidly identify isolates with the intended mutation in a cost-efficient manner. In addition, mutated isolates have clear defects in filamentation and virulence compared to wild type C. albicans. Our data suggest restriction digestion screening efficiently identifies point mutations introduced by CRISPR and streamlines the process of identifying residues important for a phenotype of interest.

Functional fine-tuning between bacterial DNA recombination initiation and quality control systems

Homologous recombination (HR) is crucial for the error-free repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) and the restart of stalled replication. However, imprecise HR can lead to genome instability, highlighting the importance of HR quality control. After DSB formation, HR proceeds via DNA end resection and recombinase loading, whereas helicase-catalyzed disruption of a subset of subsequently formed DNA invasions is thought to be essential for maintaining HR accuracy via inhibiting illegitimate (non-allelic) recombination. Here we show that in vitro characterized mechanistic aberrations of E. coli RecBCD (resection and recombinase loading) RecQ (multifunctional DNA-restructuring helicase) mutant enzyme variants, on one hand, cumulatively deteriorate cell survival under certain conditions of genomic stress. On the other hand, we find that RecBCD and RecQ defects functionally compensate each other in terms of HR accuracy. The abnormally long resection and unproductive recombinase loading activities of a mutant RecBCD complex (harboring the D1080A substitution in RecB) cause enhanced illegitimate recombination. However, this compromised HR-accuracy phenotype is suppressed in double mutant strains harboring mutant RecQ variants with abnormally enhanced helicase and inefficient invasion disruptase activities. These results frame an in vivo context for the interplay of biochemical activities leading to illegitimate recombination, and underscore its long-range genome instability effects manifest in higher eukaryotes.

Purification and enzymatic characterization of Gallus gallus BLM helicase

Mutations in human BLM helicase give rise to the autosomal recessive Bloom syndrome, which shows high predisposition to types of malignant tumours. Though lots of biochemical and structural investigations have shed lights on the helicase core, structural investigations of the whole BLM protein are still limited due to its low stability and production. Here by comparing with the expression systems and functions of other BLM homologues, we developed the heterologous high-level expression and high-yield purification systems for Gallus gallus BLM (gBLM) in Escherichia coli. Subsequent DNA binding and unwinding determinations demonstrated that gBLM was a vigorous atypical DNA structure specific helicase, which not only showed high preference for the 3'-tailed DNA structures but also could efficiently unwind bubble DNA structures with blunt-ends, indicating its biological roles in processing DNA metabolism intermediates. Further comparative analysis between gBLM and gBLM Core revealed that the long N-terminal domain facilitated the binding affinity of forked and bubble DNA structures and it was also required for the DNA unwinding activities of gBLM. Thus, we present the first enzymatic characterization of gBLM and its N-terminal domain, providing a new model for probing the mechanism and structure of human BLM.

A helical bundle in the N-terminal domain of the BLM helicase mediates dimer and potentially hexamer formation

Helicases play a critical role in processes such as replication or recombination by unwinding double-stranded DNA; mutations of these genes can therefore have devastating biological consequences. In humans, mutations in genes of three members of the RecQ family helicases (blm, wrn, and recq4) give rise to three strikingly distinctive clinical phenotypes: Bloom syndrome, Werner syndrome, and Rothmund-Thomson syndrome, respectively. However, the molecular basis for these varying phenotypic outcomes is unclear, in part because a full mechanistic description of helicase activity is lacking. Because the helicase core domains are highly conserved, it has been postulated that functional differences among family members might be explained by significant differences in the N-terminal domains, but these domains are poorly characterized. To help fill this gap, we now describe bioinformatics, biochemical, and structural data for three vertebrate BLM proteins. We pair high resolution crystal structures with SAXS analysis to describe an internal, highly conserved sequence we term the dimerization helical bundle in N-terminal domain (DHBN). We show that, despite the N-terminal domain being loosely structured and potentially lacking a defined three-dimensional structure in general, the DHBN exists as a dimeric structure required for higher order oligomer assembly. Interestingly, the unwinding amplitude and rate decrease as BLM is assembled from dimer into hexamer, and also, the stable DHBN dimer can be dissociated upon ATP hydrolysis. Thus, the structural and biochemical characterizations of N-terminal domains will provide new insights into how the N-terminal domain affects the structural and functional organization of the full BLM molecule.

Shuttling along DNA and directed processing of D-loops by RecQ helicase support quality control of homologous recombination

Cells must continuously repair inevitable DNA damage while avoiding the deleterious consequences of imprecise repair. Distinction between legitimate and illegitimate repair processes is thought to be achieved in part through differential recognition and processing of specific noncanonical DNA structures, although the mechanistic basis of discrimination remains poorly defined. Here, we show that Escherichia coli RecQ, a central DNA recombination and repair enzyme, exhibits differential processing of DNA substrates based on their geometry and structure. Through single-molecule and ensemble biophysical experiments, we elucidate how the conserved domain architecture of RecQ supports geometry-dependent shuttling and directed processing of recombination-intermediate [displacement loop (D-loop)] substrates. Our study shows that these activities together suppress illegitimate recombination in vivo, whereas unregulated duplex unwinding is detrimental for recombination precision. Based on these results, we propose a mechanism through which RecQ helicases achieve recombination precision and efficiency.

The HRDC domain of E. coli RecQ helicase controls single-stranded DNA translocation and double-stranded DNA unwinding rates without affecting mechanoenzymatic coupling

DNA-restructuring activities of RecQ-family helicases play key roles in genome maintenance. These activities, driven by two tandem RecA-like core domains, are thought to be controlled by accessory DNA-binding elements including the helicase-and-RnaseD-C-terminal (HRDC) domain. The HRDC domain of human Bloom’s syndrome (BLM) helicase was shown to interact with the RecA core, raising the possibility that it may affect the coupling between ATP hydrolysis, translocation along single-stranded (ss)DNA and/or unwinding of double-stranded (ds)DNA. Here, we determined how these activities are affected by the abolition of the ssDNA interaction of the HRDC domain or the deletion of the entire domain in E. coli RecQ helicase. Our data show that the HRDC domain suppresses the rate of DNA-activated ATPase activity in parallel with those of ssDNA translocation and dsDNA unwinding, regardless of the ssDNA binding capability of this domain. The HRDC domain does not affect either the processivity of ssDNA translocation or the tight coupling between the ATPase, translocation, and unwinding activities. Thus, the mechanochemical coupling of E. coli RecQ appears to be independent of HRDC-ssDNA and HRDC-RecA core interactions, which may play roles in more specialized functions of the enzyme.

Crystal structure of the Bloom's syndrome helicase indicates a role for the HRDC domain in conformational changes

Bloom's syndrome helicase (BLM) is a member of the RecQ family of DNA helicases, which play key roles in the maintenance of genome integrity in all organism groups. We describe crystal structures of the BLM helicase domain in complex with DNA and with an antibody fragment, as well as SAXS and domain association studies in solution. We show an unexpected nucleotide-dependent interaction of the core helicase domain with the conserved, poorly characterized HRDC domain. The BLM–DNA complex shows an unusual base-flipping mechanism with unique positioning of the DNA duplex relative to the helicase core domains. Comparison with other crystal structures of RecQ helicases permits the definition of structural transitions underlying ATP-driven helicase action, and the identification of a nucleotide-regulated tunnel that may play a role in interactions with complex DNA substrates.

Structural mechanisms of human RecQ helicases WRN and BLM

The RecQ family DNA helicases Werner syndrome protein (WRN) and Bloom syndrome protein (BLM) play a key role in protecting the genome against deleterious changes. In humans, mutations in these proteins lead to rare genetic diseases associated with cancer predisposition and accelerated aging. WRN and BLM are distinguished from other helicases by possessing signature tandem domains toward the C terminus, referred to as the RecQ C-terminal (RQC) and helicase-and-ribonuclease D-C-terminal (HRDC) domains. Although the precise function of the HRDC domain remains unclear, the previous crystal structure of a WRN RQC-DNA complex visualized a central role for the RQC domain in recognizing, binding and unwinding DNA at branch points. In particular, a prominent hairpin structure (the β-wing) within the RQC winged-helix motif acts as a scalpel to induce the unpairing of a Watson-Crick base pair at the DNA duplex terminus. A similar RQC-DNA interaction was also observed in the recent crystal structure of a BLM-DNA complex. I review the latest structures of WRN and BLM, and then provide a docking simulation of BLM with a Holliday junction. The model offers an explanation for the efficient branch migration activity of the RecQ family toward recombination and repair intermediates.

Characterization of biochemical properties of Bacillus subtilis RecQ helicase

RecQ family helicases function as safeguards of the genome. Unlike Escherichia coli, the Gram-positive Bacillus subtilis bacterium possesses two RecQ-like homologues, RecQ[Bs] and RecS, which are required for the repair of DNA double-strand breaks. RecQ[Bs] also binds to the forked DNA to ensure a smooth progression of the cell cycle. Here we present the first biochemical analysis of recombinant RecQ[Bs]. RecQ[Bs] binds weakly to single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) and blunt-ended double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) but strongly to forked dsDNA. The protein exhibits a DNA-stimulated ATPase activity and ATP- and Mg(2+)-dependent DNA helicase activity with a 3' → 5' polarity. Molecular modeling shows that RecQ[Bs] shares high sequence and structure similarity with E. coli RecQ. Surprisingly, RecQ[Bs] resembles the truncated Saccharomyces cerevisiae Sgs1 and human RecQ helicases more than RecQ[Ec] with regard to its enzymatic activities. Specifically, RecQ[Bs] unwinds forked dsDNA and DNA duplexes with a 3'-overhang but is inactive on blunt-ended dsDNA and 5'-overhung duplexes. Interestingly, RecQ[Bs] unwinds blunt-ended DNA with structural features, including nicks, gaps, 5'-flaps, Kappa joints, synthetic replication forks, and Holliday junctions. We discuss these findings in the context of RecQ[Bs]'s possible functions in preserving genomic stability.

Structural studies of DNA end detection and resection in homologous recombination

DNA double-strand breaks are repaired by two major pathways, homologous recombination or nonhomologous end joining. The commitment to one or the other pathway proceeds via different steps of resection of the DNA ends, which is controlled and executed by a set of DNA double-strand break sensors, endo- and exonucleases, helicases, and DNA damage response factors. The molecular choreography of the underlying protein machinery is beginning to emerge. In this review, we discuss the early steps of genetic recombination and double-strand break sensing with an emphasis on structural and molecular studies.

The dissolution of double Holliday junctions

Double Holliday junctions (dHJS) are important intermediates of homologous recombination. The separate junctions can each be cleaved by DNA structure-selective endonucleases known as Holliday junction resolvases. Alternatively, double Holliday junctions can be processed by a reaction known as "double Holliday junction dissolution." This reaction requires the cooperative action of a so-called "dissolvasome" comprising a Holliday junction branch migration enzyme (Sgs1/BLM RecQ helicase) and a type IA topoisomerase (Top3/TopoIIIα) in complex with its OB (oligonucleotide/oligosaccharide binding) fold containing accessory factor (Rmi1). This review details our current knowledge of the dissolution process and the players involved in catalyzing this mechanistically complex means of completing homologous recombination reactions.

A nucleotide-dependent and HRDC domain-dependent structural transition in DNA-bound RecQ helicase

The allosteric communication between the ATP- and DNA-binding sites of RecQ helicases enables efficient coupling of ATP hydrolysis to translocation along single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) and, in turn, the restructuring of multistranded DNA substrates during genome maintenance processes. In this study, we used the tryptophan fluorescence signal of Escherichia coli RecQ helicase to decipher the kinetic mechanism of the interaction of the enzyme with ssDNA. Rapid kinetic experiments revealed that ssDNA binding occurs in a two-step mechanism in which the initial binding step is followed by a structural transition of the DNA-bound helicase. We found that the nucleotide state of RecQ greatly influences the kinetics of the detected structural transition, which leads to a high affinity DNA-clamped state in the presence of the nucleotide analog ADP-AlF4. The DNA binding mechanism is largely independent of ssDNA length, indicating the independent binding of RecQ molecules to ssDNA and the lack of significant DNA end effects. The structural transition of DNA-bound RecQ was not detected when the ssDNA binding capability of the helicase-RNase D C-terminal domain was abolished or the domain was deleted. The results shed light on the nature of conformational changes leading to processive ssDNA translocation and multistranded DNA processing by RecQ helicases.

Solution small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) studies of RecQ from Deinococcus radiodurans and its complexes with junction DNA substrates

RecQ helicases, essential enzymes for maintaining genome integrity, possess the capability to participate in a wide variety of DNA metabolisms. They can initiate the homologous recombination repair pathway by unwinding damaged dsDNA and suppress hyper-recombination by promoting Holliday junction (HJ) migration. To learn how DrRecQ participates in the homologous recombination repair pathway, solution structures of Deinococcus radiodurans RecQ (DrRecQ) and its complexes with DNA substrates were investigated by small angle x-ray scattering. We found that the catalytic core and the most N-terminal HRDC (helicase and RNase D C-terminal) domain (HRDC1) undergo a conformational change to a compact state upon binding to a junction DNA. Furthermore, models of DrRecQ in complexes with two kinds of junction DNA (fork junction and HJ) were built based on the small angle x-ray scattering data, and together with the EMSA results, possible binding sites were proposed. It is demonstrated that two DrRecQ molecules bind to the opposite arms of HJ. This architecture is similar to the RuvAB complex and is hypothesized to be highly conserved in the other HJ migration proteins. This work provides us new clues to understand the roles DrRecQ plays in the RecFOR pathway.

Probing Genome Maintenance Functions of human RECQ1

The RecQ helicases are a highly conserved family of DNA-unwinding enzymes that play key roles in protecting the genome stability in all kingdoms of life. Human RecQ homologs include RECQ1, BLM, WRN, RECQ4, and RECQ5β. Although the individual RecQ-related diseases are characterized by a variety of clinical features encompassing growth defects (Bloom Syndrome and Rothmund Thomson Syndrome) to premature aging (Werner Syndrome), all these patients have a high risk of cancer predisposition. Here, we present an overview of recent progress towards elucidating functions of RECQ1 helicase, the most abundant but poorly characterized RecQ homolog in humans. Consistent with a conserved role in genome stability maintenance, deficiency of RECQ1 results in elevated frequency of spontaneous sister chromatid exchanges, chromosomal instability, increased DNA damage and greater sensitivity to certain genotoxic stress. Delineating what aspects of RECQ1 catalytic functions contribute to the observed cellular phenotypes, and how this is regulated is critical to establish its biological functions in DNA metabolism. Recent studies have identified functional specialization of RECQ1 in DNA repair; however, identification of fundamental similarities will be just as critical in developing a unifying theme for RecQ actions, allowing the functions revealed from studying one homolog to be extrapolated and generalized to other RecQ homologs.

NMR structure of the N-terminal-most HRDC1 domain of RecQ helicase from Deinococcus radiodurans

The RecQ helicase from Deinococcus radiodurans (DrRecQ) distinguishes from other helicases in that it utilizes its three 'helicase and RNaseD C-terminal' domains (HRDC1, HRDC2 and HRDC3) to regulate its activity. These HRDC domains have different influence on the biochemical functions of DrRecQ. Currently, only the structure of HRDC3 was reported. Here, we determined the NMR structure of the N-terminal-most HRDC1, revealing a potential DNA binding domain. Fluorescence anisotropy assay indicates that HRDC1 has binding affinity weaker than 70 μM to all DNA substrates without any specificity. Biochemical assays suggested that HRDC1 cooperates with other domains to enhance full-length DrRecQ interactions with DNA.

The BLM dissolvasome in DNA replication and repair

RecQ DNA helicases are critical for proper maintenance of genomic stability, and mutations in multiple human RecQ genes are linked with genetic disorders characterized by a predisposition to cancer. RecQ proteins are conserved from prokaryotes to humans and in all cases form higher-order complexes with other proteins to efficiently execute their cellular functions. The focus of this review is a conserved complex that is formed between RecQ helicases and type-I topoisomerases. In humans, this complex is referred to as the BLM dissolvasome or BTR complex, and is comprised of the RecQ helicase BLM, topoisomerase IIIα, and the RMI proteins. The BLM dissolvasome functions to resolve linked DNA intermediates without exchange of genetic material, which is critical in somatic cells. We will review the history of this complex and highlight its roles in DNA replication, recombination, and repair. Additionally, we will review recently established interactions between BLM dissolvasome and a second set of genome maintenance factors (the Fanconi anemia proteins) that appear to allow coordinated genome maintenance efforts between the two systems.

Intracellular ribonucleases involved in transcript processing and decay: precision tools for RNA

In order to adapt to changing environmental conditions and regulate intracellular events such as division, cells are constantly producing new RNAs while discarding old or defective transcripts. These functions require the coordination of numerous ribonucleases that precisely cleave and trim newly made transcripts to produce functional molecules, and rapidly destroy unnecessary cellular RNAs. In recent years our knowledge of the nature, functions and structures of these enzymes in bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes has dramatically expanded. We present here a synthetic overview of the recent development in this dynamic area which has seen the identification of many new endoribonucleases and exoribonucleases. Moreover, the increasing pace at which the structures of these enzymes, or of their catalytic domains, have been solved has provided atomic level detail into their mechanisms of action. Based on sequence conservation and structural data, these proteins have been grouped into families, some of which contain only ribonuclease members, others including a variety of nucleolytic enzymes that act upon DNA and/or RNA. At the other extreme some ribonucleases belong to families of proteins involved in a wide variety of enzymatic reactions. Functional characterization of these fascinating enzymes has provided evidence for the extreme diversity of their biological functions that include, for example, removal of poly(A) tails (deadenylation) or poly(U) tails from eukaryotic RNAs, processing of tRNA and mRNA 3' ends, maturation of rRNAs and destruction of unnecessary mRNAs. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: RNA Decay mechanisms.

Neisseria gonorrhoeae RecQ helicase HRDC domains are essential for efficient binding and unwinding of the pilE guanine quartet structure required for pilin antigenic variation

The strict human pathogen Neisseria gonorrhoeae utilizes homologous recombination to antigenically vary the pilus, thus evading the host immune response. High-frequency gene conversion reactions between many silent pilin loci and the expressed pilin locus (pilE) allow for numerous pilus variants per strain to be produced from a single strain. For pilin antigenic variation (Av) to occur, a guanine quartet (G4) structure must form upstream of pilE. The RecQ helicase is one of several recombination or repair enzymes required for efficient levels of pilin Av, and RecQ family members have been shown to bind to and unwind G4 structures. Additionally, the vast majority of RecQ helicase family members encode one "helicase and RNase D C-terminal" (HRDC) domain, whereas the N. gonorrhoeae RecQ helicase gene encodes three HRDC domains, which are critical for pilin Av. Here, we confirm that deletion of RecQ HRDC domains 2 and 3 causes a decrease in the frequency of pilin Av comparable to that obtained with a functional knockout. We demonstrate that the N. gonorrhoeae RecQ helicase can bind and unwind the pilE G4 structure. Deletion of the RecQ HRDC domains 2 and 3 resulted in a decrease in G4 structure binding and unwinding. These data suggest that the decrease in pilin Av observed in the RecQ HRDC domain 2 and 3 deletion mutant is a result of the enzyme's inability to efficiently bind and unwind the pilE G4 structure.

Structure of the essential diversity-generating retroelement protein bAvd and its functionally important interaction with reverse transcriptase

Diversity-generating retroelements (DGRs) are the only known source of massive protein sequence variation in prokaryotes. These elements transfer coding information from a template region (TR) through an RNA intermediate to a protein-encoding variable region. This retrohoming process is accompanied by unique adenine-specific mutagenesis and, in the prototypical BPP-1 DGR, requires a reverse transcriptase (bRT) and an accessory variability determinant (bAvd) protein. To understand the role of bAvd, we determined its 2.69 Å resolution structure, which revealed a highly positively charged pentameric barrel. In accordance with its charge, bAvd bound both DNA and RNA, albeit without a discernable sequence preference. We found that the coding sequence of bAvd functioned as part of TR but identified means to mutate bAvd without affecting TR. This mutational analysis revealed a strict correspondence between retrohoming and interaction of bAvd with bRT, suggesting that the bRT-bAvd complex is important for DGR retrohoming.

RecQ Helicases: Conserved Guardians of Genomic Integrity

The RecQ family of DNA helicases is highly conserved throughout -evolution, and is important for the maintenance of genome stability. In humans, five RecQ family members have been identified: BLM, WRN, RECQ4, RECQ1 and RECQ5. Defects in three of these give rise to Bloom's syndrome (BLM), Werner's syndrome (WRN) and Rothmund-Thomson/RAPADILINO/Baller-Gerold (RECQ4) syndromes. These syndromes are characterised by cancer predisposition and/or premature ageing. In this review, we focus on the roles of BLM and its S. cerevisiae homologue, Sgs1, in genome maintenance. BLM/Sgs1 has been shown to play a critical role in homologous recombination at multiple steps, including end-resection, displacement loop formation, branch migration and double Holliday junction dissolution. In addition, recent evidence has revealed a role for BLM/Sgs1 in the stabilisation and repair of replication forks damaged during a perturbed S-phase. Finally BLM also plays a role in the suppression and/or resolution of ultra-fine anaphase DNA bridges that form between sister-chromatids during mitosis.

Homologous Recombination-Enzymes and Pathways

Homologous recombination is an ubiquitous process that shapes genomes and repairs DNA damage. The reaction is classically divided into three phases: presynaptic, synaptic, and postsynaptic. In Escherichia coli, the presynaptic phase involves either RecBCD or RecFOR proteins, which act on DNA double-stranded ends and DNA single-stranded gaps, respectively; the central synaptic steps are catalyzed by the ubiquitous DNA-binding protein RecA; and the postsynaptic phase involves either RuvABC or RecG proteins, which catalyze branch-migration and, in the case of RuvABC, the cleavage of Holliday junctions. Here, we review the biochemical properties of these molecular machines and analyze how, in light of these properties, the phenotypes of null mutants allow us to define their biological function(s). The consequences of point mutations on the biochemical properties of recombination enzymes and on cell phenotypes help refine the molecular mechanisms of action and the biological roles of recombination proteins. Given the high level of conservation of key proteins like RecA and the conservation of the principles of action of all recombination proteins, the deep knowledge acquired during decades of studies of homologous recombination in bacteria is the foundation of our present understanding of the processes that govern genome stability and evolution in all living organisms.

Mycobacterium smegmatis SftH exemplifies a distinctive clade of superfamily II DNA-dependent ATPases with 3' to 5' translocase and helicase activities

Bacterial DNA helicases are nucleic acid-dependent NTPases that play important roles in DNA replication, recombination and repair. We are interested in the DNA helicases of Mycobacteria, a genus of the phylum Actinobacteria, which includes the human pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis and its avirulent relative Mycobacterium smegmatis. Here, we identify and characterize M. smegmatis SftH, a superfamily II helicase with a distinctive domain structure, comprising an N-terminal NTPase domain and a C-terminal DUF1998 domain (containing a putative tetracysteine metal-binding motif). We show that SftH is a monomeric DNA-dependent ATPase/dATPase that translocates 3' to 5' on single-stranded DNA and has 3' to 5' helicase activity. SftH homologs are found in bacteria representing 12 different phyla, being especially prevalent in Actinobacteria (including M. tuberculosis). SftH homologs are evident in more than 30 genera of Archaea. Among eukarya, SftH homologs are present in plants and fungi.

A telomerase-associated RecQ protein-like helicase resolves telomeric G-quadruplex structures during replication

It is well established that G-quadruplex DNA structures form at ciliate telomeres and their formation throughout the cell-cycle by telomere-end-binding proteins (TEBPs) has been analyzed. During replication telomeric G-quadruplex structure has to be resolved to allow telomere replication by telomerase. It was shown that both phosphorylation of TEBPβ and binding of telomerase are prerequisites for this process, but probably not sufficient to unfold G-quadruplex structure in timely manner to allow replication to proceed. Here we describe a RecQ-like helicase required for unfolding of G-quadruplex structures in vivo. This helicase is highly reminiscent of human RecQ protein-like 4 helicase as well as other RecQ-like helicase found in various eukaryotes and E. coli. In situ analyses combined with specific silencing of either the telomerase or the helicase by RNAi and co-immunoprecipitation experiments demonstrate that this helicase is associated with telomerase during replication and becomes recruited to telomeres by this enzyme. In vitro assays showed that a nuclear extract prepared from cells in S-phase containing both the telomerase as well as the helicase resolves telomeric G-quadruplex structure. This finding can be incorporated into a mechanistic model about the replication of telomeric G-quadruplex structures during the cell cycle.

Mycobacterium smegmatis RqlH defines a novel clade of bacterial RecQ-like DNA helicases with ATP-dependent 3'-5' translocase and duplex unwinding activities

The Escherichia coli RecQ DNA helicase participates in a pathway of DNA repair that operates in parallel to the recombination pathway driven by the multisubunit helicase–nuclease machine RecBCD. The model mycobacterium Mycobacterium smegmatis executes homologous recombination in the absence of its helicase–nuclease machine AdnAB, though it lacks a homolog of E. coli RecQ. Here, we identify and characterize M. smegmatis RqlH, a RecQ-like helicase with a distinctive domain structure. The 691-amino acid RqlH polypeptide consists of a RecQ-like ATPase domain (amino acids 1–346) and tetracysteine zinc-binding domain (amino acids 435–499), separated by an RqlH-specific linker. RqlH lacks the C-terminal HRDC domain found in E. coli RecQ. Rather, the RqlH C-domain resembles bacterial ComF proteins and includes a phosphoribosyltransferase-like module. We show that RqlH is a DNA-dependent ATPase/dATPase that translocates 3′–5′ on single-stranded DNA and has 3′–5′ helicase activity. These functions inhere to RqlH-(1–505), a monomeric motor unit comprising the ATPase, linker and zinc-binding domains. RqlH homologs are distributed widely among bacterial taxa. The mycobacteria that encode RqlH lack a classical RecQ, though many other Actinobacteria have both RqlH and RecQ. Whereas E. coli K12 encodes RecQ but lacks a homolog of RqlH, other strains of E. coli have both RqlH and RecQ.

Complex activities of the human Bloom's syndrome helicase are encoded in a core region comprising the RecA and Zn-binding domains

Bloom's syndrome DNA helicase (BLM), a member of the RecQ family, is a key player in homologous recombination (HR)-based error-free DNA repair processes. During HR, BLM exerts various biochemical activities including single-stranded (ss) DNA translocation, separation and annealing of complementary DNA strands, disruption of complex DNA structures (e.g. displacement loops) and contributes to quality control of HR via clearance of Rad51 nucleoprotein filaments. We performed a quantitative mechanistic analysis of truncated BLM constructs that are shorter than the previously identified minimal functional module. Surprisingly, we found that a BLM construct comprising only the two conserved RecA domains and the Zn²⁺-binding domain (residues 642–1077) can efficiently perform all mentioned HR-related activities. The results demonstrate that the Zn²⁺-binding domain is necessary for functional interaction with DNA. We show that the extensions of this core, including the winged-helix domain and the strand separation hairpin identified therein in other RecQ-family helicases, are not required for mechanochemical activity per se and may instead play modulatory roles and mediate protein–protein interactions.

Mobility in the structure of E.coli recQ helicase upon substrate binding as seen from molecular dynamics simulations

RecQ helicases feature multiple domains in their structure, of which the helicase domain, the RecQ-Ct domain and the HRDC domains are well conserved among the SF2 helicases. The helicase domain and the RecQ-Ct domain constitute the catalytic core of the enzyme. The domain interfaces are the DNA binding sites which display significant conformational changes in our molecular dynamics simulation studies. The preferred conformational states of the DNA bound and unbound forms of RecQ appear to be quite different from each other. DNA binding induces inter-domain flexibility leading to hinge mobility between the domains. The divergence in the dynamics of the two structures is caused by changes in the interactions at the domain interface, which seems to propagate along the whole protein structure. This could be essential in ssDNA binding after strand separation, as well as aiding translocation of the RecQ protein like an inch-worm.

Non-B DNA Secondary Structures and Their Resolution by RecQ Helicases

In addition to the canonical B-form structure first described by Watson and Crick, DNA can adopt a number of alternative structures. These non-B-form DNA secondary structures form spontaneously on tracts of repeat sequences that are abundant in genomes. In addition, structured forms of DNA with intrastrand pairing may arise on single-stranded DNA produced transiently during various cellular processes. Such secondary structures have a range of biological functions but also induce genetic instability. Increasing evidence suggests that genomic instabilities induced by non-B DNA secondary structures result in predisposition to diseases. Secondary DNA structures also represent a new class of molecular targets for DNA-interactive compounds that might be useful for targeting telomeres and transcriptional control. The equilibrium between the duplex DNA and formation of multistranded non-B-form structures is partly dependent upon the helicases that unwind (resolve) these alternate DNA structures. With special focus on tetraplex, triplex, and cruciform, this paper summarizes the incidence of non-B DNA structures and their association with genomic instability and emphasizes the roles of RecQ-like DNA helicases in genome maintenance by resolution of DNA secondary structures. In future, RecQ helicases are anticipated to be additional molecular targets for cancer chemotherapeutics.

RecQ helicases; at the crossroad of genome replication, repair, and recombination

DNA helicases are ubiquitous enzymes that unwind double-stranded DNA in an ATP-dependent and directionally specific manner. Such an action is essential for the processes of DNA repair, recombination, transcription, and DNA replication. Here, I focus on a subgroup of DNA helicases, the RecQ family, which is highly conserved in evolution. Members of this conserved family of proteins have a key role in protecting and stabilizing the genome against deleterious changes. Deficiencies in RecQ helicases can lead to high levels of genomic instability and, in humans, to premature aging and increased susceptibility to cancer. Their diverse roles in DNA metabolism, which include a role in telomere maintenance, reflect interactions with multiple cellular proteins, some of which are multifunctional and also have very diverse functions. In this review, protein structural motifs and the roles of different domains will be discussed first. The Review moves on to speculate about the different models to explain why RecQ helicases are required to protect against genome instability.

Rudimentary G-quadruplex-based telomere capping in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Telomere capping conceals chromosome ends from exonucleases and checkpoints, but the full range of capping mechanisms is not well defined. Telomeres have the potential to form G-quadruplex (G4) DNA, although evidence for telomere G4 DNA function in vivo is limited. In budding yeast, capping requires the Cdc13 protein and is lost at nonpermissive temperatures in cdc13-1 mutants. Here, we use several independent G4 DNA-stabilizing treatments to suppress cdc13-1 capping defects. These include overexpression of three different G4 DNA binding proteins, loss of the G4 DNA unwinding helicase Sgs1, or treatment with small molecule G4 DNA ligands. In vitro, we show that protein-bound G4 DNA at a 3' overhang inhibits 5'→3' resection of a paired strand by exonuclease I. These findings demonstrate that, at least in the absence of full natural capping, G4 DNA can play a positive role at telomeres in vivo.

Sgs1 truncations induce genome rearrangements but suppress detrimental effects of BLM overexpression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

RecQ-like DNA helicases are conserved from bacteria to humans. They perform functions in the maintenance of genome stability, and their mutation is associated with cancer predisposition and premature aging syndromes in humans. Here, a series of C-terminal deletions and point mutations of Sgs1, the only RecQ-like helicase in yeast, show that the Helicase/RNase D C-terminal domain and the Rad51 interaction domain are dispensable for Sgs1's role in suppressing genome instability, whereas the zinc-binding domain and the helicase domain are required. BLM expression from the native SGS1 promoter had no adverse effects on cell growth and was unable to complement any sgs1Δ defects. BLM overexpression, however, significantly increased the rate of accumulating gross-chromosomal rearrangements in a dosage-dependent manner and greatly exacerbated sensitivity to DNA-damaging agents. Co-expressing sgs1 truncations of up to 900 residues, lacking all known functional domains of Sgs1, suppressed the hydroxyurea sensitivity of BLM-overexpressing cells, suggesting a functional relationship between Sgs1 and BLM. Protein disorder prediction analysis of Sgs1 and BLM was used to produce a functional Sgs1-BLM chimera by replacing the N-terminus of BLM with the disordered N-terminus of Sgs1. The functionality of this chimera suggests that it is the disordered N-terminus, a site of protein binding and posttranslational modification, that confers species specificity to these two RecQ-like proteins.

Structure and function of the regulatory HRDC domain from human Bloom syndrome protein

The helicase and RNaseD C-terminal (HRDC) domain, conserved among members of the RecQ helicase family, regulates helicase activity by virtue of variations in its surface residues. The HRDC domain of Bloom syndrome protein (BLM) is known as a critical determinant of the dissolution function of double Holliday junctions by the BLM-Topoisomerase IIIα complex. In this study, we determined the solution structure of the human BLM HRDC domain and characterized its DNA-binding activity. The BLM HRDC domain consists of five α-helices with a hydrophobic 3(10)-helical loop between helices 1 and 2 and an extended acidic surface comprising residues in helices 3-5. The BLM HRDC domain preferentially binds to ssDNA, though with a markedly low binding affinity (K(d) ∼100 μM). NMR chemical shift perturbation studies suggested that the critical DNA-binding residues of the BLM HRDC domain are located in the hydrophobic loop and the N-terminus of helix 2. Interestingly, the isolated BLM HRDC domain had quite different DNA-binding modes between ssDNA and Holliday junctions in electrophoretic mobility shift assay experiments. Based on its surface charge separation and DNA-binding properties, we suggest that the HRDC domain of BLM may be adapted for a unique function among RecQ helicases--that of bridging protein and DNA interactions.

Identification of a coiled coil in werner syndrome protein that facilitates multimerization and promotes exonuclease processivity

Werner syndrome (WS) is a rare progeroid disorder characterized by genomic instability, increased cancer incidence, and early onset of a variety of aging pathologies. WS is unique among early aging syndromes in that affected individuals are developmentally normal, and phenotypic onset is in early adulthood. The protein defective in WS (WRN) is a member of the large RecQ family of helicases but is unique among this family in having an exonuclease. RecQ helicases form multimers, but the mechanism and consequence of multimerization remain incompletely defined. Here, we identify a novel heptad repeat coiled coil region between the WRN nuclease and helicase domains that facilitates multimerization of WRN. We mapped a novel and unique DNA-dependent protein kinase phosphorylation site proximal to the WRN multimerization region. However, phosphorylation at this site affected neither exonuclease activity nor multimeric state. We found that WRN nuclease is stimulated by DNA-dependent protein kinase independently of kinase activity or WRN nuclease multimeric status. In addition, WRN nuclease multimerization significantly increased nuclease processivity. We found that the novel WRN coiled coil domain is necessary for multimerization of the nuclease domain and sufficient to multimerize with full-length WRN in human cells. Importantly, correct homomultimerization is required for WRN function in vivo as overexpression of this multimerization domain caused increased sensitivity to camptothecin and 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide similar to that in cells lacking functional WRN protein.

Werner helicase wings DNA binding

In this issue of Structure, Kitano et al. describe the structure of the DNA-bound winged-helix domain from the Werner helicase. This structure of a RecQ/DNA complex offers insights into the DNA-unwinding mechanisms of RecQ family helicases.

An essential DNA strand-exchange activity is conserved in the divergent N-termini of BLM orthologs

The gene mutated in Bloom's syndrome, BLM, encodes a member of the RecQ family of DNA helicases that is needed to suppress genome instability and cancer predisposition. BLM is highly conserved and all BLM orthologs, including budding yeast Sgs1, have a large N-terminus that binds Top3-Rmi1 but has no known catalytic activity. In this study, we describe a sub-domain of the Sgs1 N-terminus that shows in vitro single-strand DNA (ssDNA) binding, ssDNA annealing and strand-exchange (SE) activities. These activities are conserved in the human and Drosophila orthologs. SE between duplex DNA and homologous ssDNA requires no cofactors and is inhibited by a single mismatched base pair. The SE domain of Sgs1 is required in vivo for the suppression of hyper-recombination, suppression of synthetic lethality and heteroduplex rejection. The top3Delta slow-growth phenotype is also SE dependent. Surprisingly, the highly divergent human SE domain functions in yeast. This work identifies SE as a new molecular function of BLM/Sgs1, and we propose that at least one role of SE is to mediate the strand-passage events catalysed by Top3-Rmi1.

Probing the structural basis of RecQ helicase function

RecQ helicases are a ubiquitous family of DNA unwinding enzymes required to preserve genome integrity, thus preventing premature aging and cancer formation. The five human representatives of this family play non-redundant roles in the suppression of genome instability using a combination of enzymatic activities that specifically characterize each member of the family. These enzymes are in fact not only able to catalyze the transient opening of DNA duplexes, as any other conventional helicase, but can also promote annealing of complementary strands, branch migration of Holliday junctions and, in some cases, excision of ssDNA tails. Remarkably, the balance between these different activities seems to be regulated by protein oligomerization. This review illustrates the recent progress made in the definition of the structural determinants that control the different enzymatic activities of RecQ helicases and speculates on the possible mechanisms that RecQ proteins might use to promote their multiple functions.

Expression, purification and characterization of UvrD2 helicase from Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Helicases appear to be important for genome stability of dormant Mycobacterium tuberculosis responsible for latent tuberculosis infection and big proportion of active disease cases caused by reactivation. It was demonstrated that in both M. tuberculosis and Mycobacterium smegmatis, a helicase termed UvrD2 is essential for bacterial growth making it a promising target to fight tuberculosis. In many cases expression of soluble and active mycobacterial proteins in Escherichia coli is a complicated issue. In this work we for the first time report a non-trivial expression procedure in E. coli, leading to soluble UvrD2 from M. tuberculosis which possesses DNA-dependent ATP-ase activity.